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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Thu, 26 Oct 2017 18:41:51 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:42053:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"-NxWxvqU891oGp4u93gQRVVfGqxs0l7TA1vj7P0F9oHpNjHAC5klnfHn0kK-_z05VQ2sa2Hlcg\">\n    <title>Yaffs Porting Guide | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"-NxWxvqU891oGp4u93gQRVVfGqxs0l7TA1vj7P0F9oHpNjHAC5klnfHn0kK-_z05VQ2sa2Hlcg\">\n    <js-placeholder 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Yaffs Porting Guide</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/yaffs-porting-guide\" typeof=\"schema:WebPage\" class=\"page full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"Yaffs Porting Guide\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><p>version 2.0</p>\n\n<p>Last changed: rrw@kynesim.co.uk, 2009-03-20<br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>Purpose</h3>\n\n<p>The purpose of this document is to describe how to bring up Yaffs2 on a board previously unsupported using the Yaffs Direct Interface, with an example using eCos on a Balloon board.</p>\n\n<p>Before we start you probably want to have the data sheet for the NAND chips you are using in front you so that you can refer to it as we go along.</p>\n\n<h3>Background and NAND Flash Properties</h3>\n\n<p>NAND flash is generally arranged in <em>pages</em> and <em>blocks</em>. A page contains a section of data bytes and then a section of out-of-band (<em>OOB</em>) data bytes. Blocks contain a number of pages .<br /><a href=\"/yaffs-embedded-structure\"><img alt=\"YAFFS porting guide diagram\" height=\"335\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/yaffs_porting_guide_html_2de490f8.png\" width=\"783\" /></a></p>\n\n<p>The OOB section of each page is used keep track of various things like file system state, error correction data and bad block marking.</p>\n\n<p>NAND flash is programmed (written to) and read on a largely page basis (though with some level of random access) and is erased on a block basis. That is, to erase a page, you must erase the rest of the containing block along with it.</p>\n\n<p>When programming NAND flash only 1\'s can be programmed to 0\'s, so to change a byte containing 0x00 to 0xFF it must be erased, along with the rest of the block. However subsequent programs may still be made without an erase if no 0s are to be changed to 1s, this might be useful in a scenario where subsequent data might regularly have this property.</p>\n\n<p>When manufactured NAND flash contains bad blocks, these are blocks that are not reliable and any data in them will commonly corrupt easily. These must be kept track of and the OOB data section is used to mark a bad block.</p>\n\n<p>NAND in general is prone to bit errors and for that reason the OOB data is also used to write error correction codes (ECC) so that some errors can be corrected.</p>\n\n<h3>Yaffs NAND Model</h3>\n\n<p>It is probably a good thing to detail at this point how Yaffs2 expects the NAND to behave so that you are aware of what you have to provide in the NAND driver to get YAFF running. Yaffs uses some different terminology in that it refers to a page as a <em>chunk</em>.</p>\n\n<p>Yaffs2 uses a fairly abstract model for NAND flash, this allows a lot of flexibility in the way Yaffs can be used. Yaffs is designed for NAND flash and makes the following assumptions and definitions:</p>\n\n<ul><li>NAND flash is arranged in blocks. Each block is the same size and comprises an integer number of chunks. Each block is treated as a single erasable item.</li>\n	<li>A page (chunk) equates to the allocation units of flash.</li>\n	<li>All accesses (reads and writes) are page (chunk) aligned.</li>\n	<li>When programming a NAND flash, only the zero bits in the pattern being programmed are relevant, and one bits are \"don\'t care\". For example, if a byte already contains the binary pattern 1010, then programming 1001 will result in the pattern which is the logical AND of these two patterns i.e. 1000. This is different to NOR flash.</li>\n</ul><p>Yaffs identifies blocks by their block number and chunks by their chunk Id. Yaffs treats a blank (0xFF filled) block as being free or erased. Thus, the equivalent of formatting for a Yaffs partition is to erase all the blocks that are not bad.</p>\n\n<p>Therefore Yaffs minimally needs access to functions that enable it to erase blocks and to read and write on a page basis. It is also helpful to be able to read only OOB data as reading/writing a full page to only view/update OOB data will cost many serial read cycles over the bus. This is an overhead that can be avoided using the random access read and write features of some nand chips.</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<h2>Writing a Driver for NAND flash Chips</h2>\n\n<h3>Writing a Driver for the Samsung 628 K9F2G08U0M PCB0 on the Balloon Board (v3.01)</h3>\n\n<p>For the Balloon board the NAND chips hang off the CPLD which is in turn hooked up to the system bus. This is quite board specific and in this case reading the VHDL code reveals how to change the values on the pins of the NAND chips. You may look at the code by downloading the balloon source code (Appendix A) and looking at balloon3.vhd and Balloon_nand.vhd in balloon/vhdl/fpga/.</p>\n\n<p>It will be likely that this is significantly different on your platform and you should consult the relevant data sheets and documentation to determine how to access the NAND hardware on your board. I will present an example of the balloon board in order to give an overview of the kind of thing that is required.</p>\n\n<p>On the Balloon the CPLD routes data on the bus with certain address to the logic on the CPLD that actually controls the flash chips. They are as follows:</p>\n\n<p><code>NAND Data Bus : 0x10e00000</code> <code>NAND Control 2: 0x10e00010</code> <code>NAND Control : 0x10e00014</code></p>\n\n<p>Sending data to the \'NAND Data Bus\' address will put that data onto the I/O pins of the NAND chips. All of the nand chips are hooked up to the same pins on the CPLD so writing to the \'NAND Data Bus\' address will put the value written on the I/O pins for <em>all</em> of the available flash chips. To isolate the chip you want to work with using the chip enable pin on each flash chip.</p>\n\n<p>This is done by writing to the \'NAND Control\' (0x10e00014) address. When writing to \'NAND control\', the CPLD takes the data value on the bus and routes each bit to a different wire. This bit field is structured as follows:</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<table><colgroup><col /><col /></colgroup><tr><td><em>Pin Attached To</em></td>\n			<td><em>Bit in NAND Control value</em></td>\n		</tr><tr><td>CLE (Control Latch Enable)</td>\n			<td>0</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>ALE (Address Latch Enable)</td>\n			<td>1</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>nCE0 (not Chip Enable for chip 0)</td>\n			<td>2</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>nCE1 (for chip 1)</td>\n			<td>3</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>nCE2 (for chip 2)</td>\n			<td>4</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>nCE3 (for chip 3)</td>\n			<td>5</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>nSE (not Chip Enable for chip 0)</td>\n			<td>6</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>nWP (not Write Protect)</td>\n			<td>7</td>\n		</tr></table><p> </p>\n\n<p>So for example bit 1 on the data lines is put onto the ALE pin on the physical chip. Bits prefixed with \'n\' are active low, for example chip 0 is selected when nCE0 is low and nCE1-3 are high.</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>So writing to \'NAND Control\' we can change the values of the pins on the flash. Again, CLE, ALE, nSE and nWP change the value of the corresponding pin on all the flash chips available, nCE[0-3] will select the chip you are using.</p>\n\n<p>Finally, NAND flash typically comes in couple of flavours, 8 bit wide (x8) and 16 bit wide (x16). This means that x8 chips have 8 I/O pins and x16 have 16. The logic on the CPLD on the Balloon can handle both if you tell it which you are currently dealing with. Writing to \'NAND Control 2\' a value of 1 puts the CPLD logic for the NAND chips into x8 mode and 0 into x16 mode. I will assume for the rest of this document that there are only x8 chips connected to the balloon but it should be fairly trivial to extend it to support both.</p>\n\n<h3>Using the Flash Chips</h3>\n\n<p>The flash chips we\'re using have a number of commands, each triggered by a sequence of one or two command codes. You will want to refer to the data sheets for precise details of these functions, but I will briefly describe some of them in this document. The command set that we have for the particular chip we\'re using is table 1 on page 7 of the data sheet.</p>\n\n<p>To input a command there is generally one or two command input cycles. For two cycle commands there is generally an initial command followed by some data needed to complete the command then another command cycle to notify that the relevant data has been input and to start execution. For example for read operations the command 0x00 is latched in followed by some address input cycles followed by the command 0x30 to start the operation. With this in mind I will now describe how to input commands, the \'Command Latch Cycle\'.</p>\n\n<p>Note that for this section I have assumed that the bus is sufficiently slow that the set-up and hold times are not an issue, if you have a fast bus then you may have to wait for a small amount of time (refer to the data sheet) after changing values on the pins (by writing to the correct address) so that set-up and hold times are not violated.</p>\n\n<h3>Command Latch Cycle</h3>\n\n<p>For the command latch cycle you need to first select a chip by setting the relevant nCE low and then you need to set the CLE bit high, that means writing to the \'NAND Control\' address. ALE must also be low and should be set at the same time as CLE. It is then a case of putting the command value onto the I/O pins by writing to the \'NAND Data Bus\' address the value of the command you want. This will then latch in the command, afterwards you will need to clear the CLE bit again.</p>\n\n<p>You will also notice from looking at the data sheet that something needs to be done with the nWE (not <strong>w</strong>rite <strong>e</strong>nable) pin (specifically it should be low while latching in the command), but that I have yet to describe a mechanism for changing its value. This is because it is dealt with by the logic in the CPLD and whenever data is sent to the data address the CPLD will toggle nWE appropriately. (This is also true of nRE (not <strong>r</strong>ead <strong>e</strong>nable) when reading). This process is implemented in the nand_chip_select and the send_command functions (flash.c).</p>\n\n<h3>Address Latch Cycle and Addressing</h3>\n\n<p>The process for the Address Latch Cycle is similar to that for command latching (with the sense of ALE and CLE reversed) and can be looked at in the data sheet and is implemented in send_address in flash.c. The addressing is done by row and column. There are 5 address cycles on the flash chips we\'re looking at. The first cycle contains bits 0-7 of the column address, the second bits 8-11 with the remaining bits of the byte to be sent low. The row address is over 3 more cycles in a similar fashion.</p>\n\n<p>You may wish to chose to address the individual bytes of the chip with the OOB data not directly addressable. This has enabled me to lump several chips into the same address space and select the correct chip based on the address. Addresses then need to be converted to row and column. You should also check that they are page/block aligned in the relevant places if that\'s what your functions expect. It needn\'t be done this way any you could use page numbers instead of bytes just as easily.</p>\n\n<p><br /><a href=\"/yaffs-embedded-structure\"><img alt=\"YAFFS porting guide diagram 2\" height=\"209\" src=\"sites/yaffs.net/files/images/yaffs_porting_guide_html_m11b1f893.png\" width=\"654\" /></a></p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>The \'row\' is essentially the page index and the \'column\' is the index into to that page, so if you wanted to read from the start of page 213 you would send 0 for the column and 213 for the row. Conversely if you wanted just the OOB bytes from the same page you would send a column value of 2048 (given a page size of 2048+64 bytes).</p>\n\n<p><br /><a href=\"/yaffs-embedded-structure\"><img alt=\"YAFFS porting guide diagram 3\" height=\"271\" src=\"sites/yaffs.net/files/images/yaffs_porting_guide_html_m4650262f.png\" width=\"347\" /></a></p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<h3>Finding Chip information</h3>\n\n<p>You will then need to find out which chips are active (e.g. on the balloon there are 4 possible chips, not all of which will exist) and what type of chips they are. For this there is the \'Read ID\' operation. This operation is implemented in the read_ids function in flash.c. The result of the operation gives the manufacturer and device code of the chip and information about the chip (page size, block size, oob size etc). To find which chips are available, loop through the possible chips and start a Read ID command on each of them, if the expected data is returned then there is a chip at that location.</p>\n\n<p>The operation is started by sending the command 0x90 and then one address cycle of 0x00. There are then 5 read cycles which give you data about the device. A description of how to unpack this information from the returned bytes is located on page 32 of the data sheet for the chip described here.</p>\n\n<p>This then gives you how many chips you have and what layout the data in them has.</p>\n\n<h3>Bad Block Checking</h3>\n\n<p>Contained within a nand chip are blocks that the manufacturer will not guarantee the reliability of (this is to increase yield in manufacturing) and so bad blocks must be kept track of. The Samsung chips come with the first byte (or word for x16) of the first and second page of each bad block not programmed as 0xFF.</p>\n\n<p>This bad block marking should be maintained and should be added to in the same way when a bad block is is discovered. Yaffs will expect you to provide a function it can call to mark a particular block as bad when yaffs decides it is necessary.</p>\n\n<p>Yaffs keeps track of bad blocks itself so that the driver doesn\'t need to worry about masking out bad blocks.</p>\n\n<h3>Erasing a Block</h3>\n\n<p>An example of this operation is given in nand_erase_block in flash.c. If you are addressing the nand by bytes then you must first check that the address is aligned to the start of a block and then convert the address into a block number. If there is more than one chip this will involve working out which chip the address refers to and then selecting the correct chip. This can be seen in the select_chip function in flash.c. You must then send the first command cycle for the erase operation before sending 3 cycles of address and then finally the last command cycle.</p>\n\n<p>For the erase operation the 3 address cycles are different than for the read/write operations. Only address bits A18 to A29 is valid (for x8) while A12 to A17 is ignored. In terms of the ordinary 5 cycles address input you only need to deal with the last 3 cycles and of those only the highest 2 bits of the 3rd cycle are used and the full 4th and 5th cycle are used.</p>\n\n<p>Once the operation has been started the program can check the progress of the operation by sending a command of 70h. Each subsequent read will contain the read status. The driver should wait until the read is complete (by the read status operation), the read status operation also contains information about whether the erase failed and this information should be returned from the function doing the erase.</p>\n\n<h3>Reading a Page</h3>\n\n<p>Reading a page is performed by first selecting the correct chip and then converting the address to a row and column number. You can then sending the first command cycle for the read operation followed by 5 address cycles as described in the previous sections. The second command cycle then starts the read operation. The driver must then wait for the data to be retrieved into the data registers on the NAND before they can be read out over the bus. For the example chip this is 25us, consult the data sheet as this may differ. The data can then be read out sequentially byte by byte until all the data needed is obtained.</p>\n\n<h3>Writing a Page</h3>\n\n<p>Page program operations are performed by first selecting the correct chip converting the address to row and column numbers. The page program operation is initiated by the relevant fist command latch cycle (command 0x80) followed by an address latch cycle (as for read), serial data loading and then the second command latch cycle (command 0x10).</p>\n\n<p>The serial data loading is done by serially writing data to the I/O pins. Up to 2112 bytes (x8) can be loaded into the data registers. Once the second command cycle is sent the program is initiated and there is then a programming period where the loaded data is programmed into the appropriate cell. The driver should wait for this to complete by issuing a read status command (0x70) and monitoring the R/nB (ready / not busy) bit. The R/nB flag is on I/O pin 6 and can be checked by repeatedly reading from the \'NAND Data Bus\' address. Once the operation is complete the Write Status Bit (I/O 0 ) may be checked to confirm that the operation was successful.</p>\n\n<h2>Yaffs</h2>\n\n<h3>How To Use Yaffs</h3>\n\n<h3>Checking Out From Git</h3>\n\n<p>The first thing to do is to obtain the source code for Yaffs. This can be done from CVS, details of the process can be found at <a href=\"http://www.yaffs.net/download-yaffs-using-git\">http://www.yaffs.net/download-yaffs-using-git</a>.</p>\n\n<p>The following command will checkout the latest Git version using public read-only access, if you are using bash.</p>\n\n<p><code>$ </code>git clone git://www.aleph1.co.uk/yaffs2 </p>\n\n<h3>Making Some Tweaks to the Source Code</h3>\n\n<p>As of the latest version from CVS in January 2009, you will need to make a small number of changes before you can compile the source code without errors and warnings. There is a patch file included with this document.</p>\n\n<p>You will need to provide a definition of loff_t (in yaffs2/direct/ydirectenv.h) this is for holding the file size in bytes, you should make it big enough to hold the largest file size you wish to support. Unsigned long is probably a good place to start. You will need to edit yaffsfs.c to change a #if to a #ifdef. Then if you have the relevant warnings and -Werror switched on you will need to correct a couple of printf format strings to get the type right (changing a few \'%d\' to \'%ld\').</p>\n\n<p><code>change yaffs/ydirectenv.h </code></p>\n\n<p><code>+ typedef unsigned long loff_t; </code></p>\n\n<p><code>change yaffs2/direct/yaffsfs.c ~line 1117 </code></p>\n\n<p><code>- #if CONFIG_YAFFS_WINCE </code></p>\n\n<p><code>+ #ifdef CONFIG_YAFFS_WINCE</code></p>\n\n<h3>Relevant Files to the Direct Interface</h3>\n\n<p>There are quite a few files that get checked out, not all of which you will need to get going with the yaffs direct interface. The ones you will actually need are listed bellow, you do not need to compile the rest in.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>direct/yaffsfs.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_guts.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>direct/yaffscfg.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_nand.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_tagsvalidity.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_checkptrw.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_qsort.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_tagscompat.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_ecc.c </code></code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>yaffs_packedtags2.c</code></code></p>\n\n<h3>Some Relevant Preprocessor Flags</h3>\n\n<p>There are many different configuration options for yaffs, here are a few that you should be aware of for using the yaffs direct interface.</p>\n\n<ul><li>CONFIG_YAFFS_DIRECT - Tell yaffs to use the direct interface.</li>\n	<li>CONFIG_YAFFS_YAFFS2 - Tell yaffs we want to use yaffs2</li>\n	<li>CONFIG_YAFFS_PROVIDE_DEFS - provides some definitions for file types and #includes linux/types.h, linux/fs.h, linux/stat.h (see yaffs2/devextras.h).</li>\n	<li>CONFIG_YAFFSFS_PROVIDE_VALUES - This may be used so that you can customise error values and constants like O_RDONLY to match the underlying system values, if itis not defined then it includes errno.h,sys/stat.h and fcntl.h (see yaffs2/direct/yaffsfs.h).</li>\n</ul><p>Specify these options when compiling yaffs, i.e. -DCONFIG_YAFFS_DIRECT etc.</p>\n\n<h3>Configuring</h3>\n\n<p>You will then need to provide yaffs with configuration information. This includes details about the nand flash you are using and also tells yaffs which functions to call when when it wants to read/write/erase parts of the flash, these functions will form the bridge between yaffs and the underlying hardware driver. This customisation is done in yaffscfg.h. Within yaffscfg.h you will need to provide a number of operating-system-like functions and a function to initialise yaffs. For example providing functions for malloc and free. Here is a breakdown of those functions that need to be implemented.</p>\n\n<h3>Operating System Functions</h3>\n\n<p><code><code>void yaffsfs_SetError(int err); </code> </code></p>\n\n<p>Report system errors, for example using errno if it exists.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>void *yaffs_malloc(size_t size);</code> <code>void yaffs_free(void *ptr);</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>As for the standard malloc and free functions, if they already exist on your system then you can just shim them.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>void yaffsfs_LocalInitialisation(void);</code> <code>void yaffsfs_Lock(void);</code> <code>void yaffsfs_Unlock(void);</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>Use yaffsfs_LocalInitalisation to initialise \"Real Time Operating System\" state, if the system is multi-threaded then it should initialise a semaphore/mutex for use by lock and unlock. Lock/unlock should use the semaphore set up in LocalInitialisation to lock yaffs from multi-threaded access.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>__u32 yaffsfs_CurrentTime(void);</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This can be any time increment of use to the system. If this is not required, then it is fine to just use a function that returns zero.</p>\n\n<h3>Yaffs Startup Function</h3>\n\n<p><code><code>int yaffs_StartUp(void); </code> </code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>Return value: YAFFS_OK or YAFFS_FAIL</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This functions should be used to provide yaffs with many details about the properties of the underlying nand device. Within this function you will need to set up a \'yaffs_Device\' (yaffs_guts.h) and a \'yaffsfs_DeviceConfiguration\' (direct/yaffscfg.h). How to set up a yaffs device will follow in the next section. Once you have set up the required yaffs_Device structures you should call yaffs_initialise (yaffs_guts.h) with a pointer to a null terminated array of yaffs_DeviceConfiguration structures. A yaffs_DeviceConfiguration structure contains a pointer to a yaffs_Device and the \'mount point\' string (prefix) that that device corresponds to.</p>\n\n<h3>Yaffs Devices</h3>\n\n<p>A yaffs device is a logical device that represents part of or a whole physical device. You might think of it as a \'partition\' on the nand. For example, it might cover the whole of the nand device or perhaps only claim half, with another yaffs_Device claiming the other half. It may also be used so that you can use a device other than a flash device (e.g. RAM) for testing purposes.</p>\n\n<p>A yaffs_Device keeps track of the start and end block, so you may have more than one yaffs_Device corresponding to the same physical device by altering the start and end block of the yaffs device.</p>\n\n<p>The fields on the yaffs_Device struct that you need to set up yourself are listed below, all other fields are setup automatically by yaffs.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int nDataBytesPerChunk</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>As the name suggests this is the number of bytes per chunk, remembering that in yaffs terminology a page is referred to as a chunk, this is then the number of bytes per page. This is the number of data bytes, that is the number of bytes excluding the OOB byte data. E.g. if a page is 2048byte + 64bytes of OOB then set nDataBytesPerChunk to 2048.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int nChunksPerBlock </code> </code></p>\n\n<p>Straightforwardly the number of chunks (pages on the nand) in each block on the physical nand device. Must be at least 2.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int spareBytesPerChunk</code></code><br />\nThis is the size of the spare area, i.e. the number of OOB bytes per chunk (page)<code>. </code></p>\n\n<p><code><code>int startBlock</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>The block number (not the address in bytes) on the chip of the first block of this logical yaffs_Device. Beware, yaffs needs the first block to be free so you should not set this to 0, if it is then yaffs will add on one to it itself and also add on one to the end block which could be an issue if you wanted your device to start at block 0 and finish at the last block which might mean yaffs trying to write to a non-existent block.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int endBlock</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>The block number on the chip of the last block for this logical yaffs_Device. If startBlock == 0 then yaffs will use endBlock+1. Must be at least startBlock + nReservedBlocks + 2.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int nReservedBlocks</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This is then number of erasable blocks that Yaffs must keep in reserve for garbage collection and to cover for block failures. This must be a minimum of 2, but 5 or so is better. If you are using a medium that is not expected to fail (eg. RAM for a RAM disk, or a host file system emulation then 2 is OK).</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int nShortOpCaches</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This configures the number of entries in the Yaffs cache for this device. A value of zero defeats the cache. A value of 10 to 20 is recommended for most systems. Cannon be any bigger than YAFFS_MAX_SHORT_OP_CACHES.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int useNANDECC</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This is a flag that tells yaffs whether it should be doing ECC calculations or if it should be left to the driver.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>void *genericDevice</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This is a pointer which should point to any data that the underlying nand driver will need to know to write and read from the physical device.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int isYaffs2</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>Are we using Yaffs2? We only deal with Yaffs2 in this document.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int inbandTags</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>Is there an OOB section? If not then this should be true. Only relevant to Yaffs2.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>_u32 totalBytesPerChunk</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>Possibly a misleading name, it should be equal to nDataBytesPerChunk not nDataBytesPerChunk + spareBytesPerChunk as the name might suggest. If inbandTags is true then yaffs sets nDataBytesPerChunk such that there is enough space for the data yaffs would normally store in the spare area.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>write/readChunkWithTagsFromNAND, markNANDBlockBad, queryNANDBlock</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>These are all pointers to functions that you shall provide to provide Yaffs with a method of writing/reading etc from the NAND.</p>\n\n<h3>NAND access functions</h3>\n\n<p>If you are using Yaffs2 you need to provide pointers to functions that Yaffs can call to write and read from the nand. Example implementations of these function can be seen in yaffs_mtdif.c, these are the functions written to do the same job for the linux mtd layer and provides the write and read functions. The following functions return YAFFS_OK on success and YAFFS_FAIL on failure.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int (*writeChunkWithTagsToNAND) (struct yaffs_DeviceStruct * dev,</code> <code>int chunkInNAND, const __u8 * data,</code> <code>const yaffs_ExtendedTags * tags);</code> <code>dev: yaffs_Device to write to.</code> <code>chunkInNAND: Which page to write the chunk to.</code> <code>Data: Pointer to the data to write</code> <code>tags: Unpacked OOB data.</code> <code>Return: YAFFS_OK / YAFFS_FAIL</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This function is to write pages (chunks) to the nand. In this function you will probably want to first retrive any useful data that you put in dev-&gt;genericDevice (in the yaffs_StartUp function) and use it to call the function you wrote previously to write data to the nand. For yaffs2 data and tags should never be NULL. chunkInNand is the page number of the page to write to, not an address so it will need converting if that\'s what your underling functions to write to the nand expect.</p>\n\n<p>You will then need to pack the tags into a yaffs_PackedTags2 structure, this takes out the all relevant details from the yaffs_ExtendedTags tags structure and calculates ECC data on it before placing them in the packedtags2 structure. This structure is the OOB data you will want to write out to the nands spare area.</p>\n\n<p>How you write these out to the OOB data depends on your architecture, nand chips and therefore how bad block marking is done. If for example the first byte is used for bad block marking then simply writing the tags out after the first byte is acceptable. The ECC data in packed tags only covers error correction and detection for the tags in the OOB data, if you want ECC on the data then you must do that yourself.</p>\n\n<p>To perform ECC checks to the data bytes you may use the yaffs_ECCCalculate function which calculates ECC data for 256 byte sections of data. This function produces 3 bytes of ECC data per 256 bytes. Therefore for 2048 bytes of data in each page you would need (2048/256) * 3 = 8 * 3 = 24 extra bytes of ECC data. This can be written out after the bad block byte and packed tags data.<br />\n </p>\n\n<p><code><code>int (*readChunkWithTagsFromNAND) (struct yaffs_DeviceStruct * dev,</code> <code>int chunkInNAND, __u8 * data,</code> <code>yaffs_ExtendedTags * tags);</code> <code>dev: The yaffs_Device to read from.</code> <code>chunkInNAND: Which page to read from.</code> <code>Data: Pointer to a buffer to read data to.</code> <code>tags: Pointer to a buffer to unpacked OOB data into.</code> <code>Return: YAFFS_OK / YAFFS_FAIL</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This function should do the opposite to the previous function. Firstly, read in the data and OOB bytes. Secondly place the data bytes in the area pointed to by data, then unpack the OOB bytes into into the pointer to tags using yaffs_UnpackTags2.</p>\n\n<p>Once the tags have been unpacked you should then recalculate the ECC data on the data bytes you just read back, just as you did for the write operation. Then use the recalculated ECC and the ECC data read out of the OOB bytes with yaffs_ECCCorrect to correct the data.</p>\n\n<p>Depending on the return value from yaffs_ECCCorrect you should set tags-&gt;eccResult to reflect whether anything was corrected or the correction failed. yaffs_UnpackTags2 also sets tags-&gt;eccResult so you should only update it if the result of the data correction is worse than is already there. i.e. if after the tags are unpacked and eccResult is YAFFS_ECC_RESULT_FIXED and ECC correction on the data read back resulted in no errors then you should leave unpackedtags2 and YAFFS_ECC_RESULT_FIXED and not set it to YAFFS_ECC_RESULT_NO_ERROR.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int (*markNANDBlockBad) (struct yaffs_DeviceStruct * dev, int blockNo);</code> <code>dev: yaffs_Device to write to.</code> <code>blockNo: Which block to mark.</code> <code>Return: YAFFS_OK / YAFFS_FAIL</code></code></p>\n\n<p>This should mark the block bad. This probably means reading the OOB data and changing the relevant byte that marks the bad block, and writing the OOB data back.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>int (*queryNANDBlock) (struct yaffs_DeviceStruct * dev, int blockNo,</code> <code>yaffs_BlockState * state, __u32 *sequenceNumber);</code> <code>dev: The yaffs_Device to write to.</code> <code>blockNo: Which block to mark.</code> <code>state: Upon returning this should be set to the relevant state of this particular block.</code> <code>Sequence number: The Sequence number of this block. 0 if the block is unused.</code> <code>Return: YAFFS_OK / YAFFS_FAIL</code> </code></p>\n\n<p>This should check whether or not the block is valid.</p>\n\n<p>If the bad block marker is set in the OOB then *state should be set to YAFFS_BLOCK_STATE_DEAD *sequenceNumber set to 0, and return YAFFS_FAIL.</p>\n\n<p>If the block is not bad then the tags should be unpacked. After the tags are unpacked, and it is found that chunk is used (see tags.chunkUsed) *sequenceNumber should be set to tags.sequenceNumber and *state to YAFFS_BLOCK_STATE_NEEDS_SCANNING, otherwise if the block is not used then *sequenceNumber should be 0 and *state should be set to YAFFS_BLOCK_STATE_EMPTY.</p>\n\n<h3>Application Interface</h3>\n\n<p>The yaffs provides a number of functions for applications to interface with it. These are mostly the same as the standard clib open/close etc prefixed with yaffs_ eg yaffs_open. These functions are defined in direct/yaffsfs.h.</p>\n\n<p>To initialise yaffs so that reading and writing can be done, you must call yaffs mount for each yaffs device you would like to use, e.g. yaffs_mount(\"/boot\"). This could be done at system boot if there is an operating system present so that the application need to worry about this. You will also need to call yaffs_unmount when you have finished so that yaffs may write any state it needs to to disk.</p>\n\n<p>If there is already an application interface for reading and writing files you may shim the relevant function calls with the related operating system calls.</p>\n\n<p>E.g. simply doing #define open(path, oflag, mode) yaffs_open(path, oflag, mode)</p>\n\n<p>Or having something more complex to provide redirection functions if there is more than one file system present.</p>\n\n<p><code><code>For example: int open(const char *path,...)<br />\n{<br />\n//Determine which file system is being used </code> <code>if(it_is_a_yaffs_path(path)) {</code> <code> return yaffs_open(...);<br />\n} else {<br />\n// Do something else<br />\n}<br />\n}</code></code></p>\n\n<h2>Appendices</h2>\n\n<h3>Appendix A - Accessing the Balloon Source Code</h3>\n\n<p>The latest source code for the balloon board can be checked out from SVN. There is different code for different balloon versions. Details of getting the source and setting up tool chains is decribed in the following page <a href=\"http://www.balloonboard.org/software.html\">http://www.balloonboard.org/software.html</a>. If you just want to take a look at the latest mainline code then the following will give you what you want.</p>\n\n<p>svn checkout svn://balloonboard.org/balloon/trunk/</p>\n\n<p> </p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Thu, 26 Oct 2017 15:58:41 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:10508:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"K2IGr2JM6A2JHXMvcr5kFrVoQbCeqSTgEJEZEGLMFdsQeoBo4fV7QZuKLA2adUXXUXwHwuRGrw\">\n    <title>“Almost 15 years …never seen a failure...” | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"K2IGr2JM6A2JHXMvcr5kFrVoQbCeqSTgEJEZEGLMFdsQeoBo4fV7QZuKLA2adUXXUXwHwuRGrw\">\n    <js-placeholder 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data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>“Almost 15 years …never seen a failure...”</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/almost-15-years-never-seen-failure\" class=\"case-study is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div class=\"field field--name-field-organisation field--type-string field--label-hidden field--item\">Tape Replacement Ltd</div>\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><p dir=\"ltr\">The DDS range of digital data storage solutions from Tape Replacement Ltd deliver a modern, solid state data storage unit designed specifically to replace out-dated magnetic tape, magneto optical, disc hard-drive units such as those used within legacy telephone switching systems. This saves companies such as telcos, and ultimately their customers, millions of dollars in upgrade costs as well as improving overall system reliability and keeping functioning equipment from being dumped in landfills.</p>\n\n<p dir=\"ltr\">The storage layer is made up of two independent stacks of NAND chips, combined using a RAID-1 structure, using YAFFS to expose this to the application.</p>\n\n<p dir=\"ltr\">According to Andre Renaud, Engineering Manager at Tape Replacement:</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p dir=\"ltr\">“We\'ve been running the units for almost 15 years now, and we have never seen a failure of the underlying YAFFS/NAND storage system. YAFFS provides us with a fast, reliable storage mechanism which is especially useful given the changes in NAND technologies over the years, and the intricate technical details of their behaviour.”</p>\n</blockquote></div>\n      \n      <div class=\"field field--name-field-url field--type-link field--label-hidden field--items\">\n              <div class=\"field--item\"><a href=\"http://www.tape-replacement.com/\">http://www.tape-replacement.com/</a></div>\n          </div>\n  \n            <div class=\"field field--name-field-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field--item\">    <img srcset=\"/sites/default/files/styles/max_325x325/public/2017-09/tape_replacement.jpg?itok=HsMgXnI2 325w, /sites/default/files/styles/max_650x650/public/2017-09/tape_replacement.jpg?itok=cUoW-9yU 555w\" sizes=\"(min-width: 1290px) 325px, (min-width: 851px) 25vw, (min-width: 560px) 50vw, 100vw\" src=\"/sites/default/files/styles/max_325x325/public/2017-09/tape_replacement.jpg?itok=HsMgXnI2\" alt=\"Tape Replacement Ltd Logo\" typeof=\"foaf:Image\" class=\"img-responsive\" />\n\n\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Fri, 27 Oct 2017 01:25:20 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:10113:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"mfHwk3Ocf9LTkF7uxgFgoy2h1CGXfXpSB1JBvbyukwxqs9fIGQjMpaEXT-PMSXIrCiaXQOtQ_g\">\n    <title>Yaffs1 memory footprint | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"mfHwk3Ocf9LTkF7uxgFgoy2h1CGXfXpSB1JBvbyukwxqs9fIGQjMpaEXT-PMSXIrCiaXQOtQ_g\">\n    <js-placeholder token=\"mfHwk3Ocf9LTkF7uxgFgoy2h1CGXfXpSB1JBvbyukwxqs9fIGQjMpaEXT-PMSXIrCiaXQOtQ_g\">\n  </head>\n  <body class=\"fontyourface path-node page-node-type-book navbar-is-fixed-top has-glyphicons\">\n    <a href=\"#main-content\" class=\"visually-hidden focusable skip-link\">\n      Skip to main content\n    </a>\n    <div style=\"background-color: ; color: \" id=\"environment-indicator\">\n  \n    </div>\n\n              <header class=\"navbar navbar-default navbar-fixed-top\" id=\"navbar\" role=\"banner\">\n              <div class=\"container\">\n            <div class=\"navbar-header\">\n          <div class=\"region region-navigation\">\n          <a class=\"logo navbar-btn pull-left\" href=\"/\" title=\"Home\" rel=\"home\">\n      <img src=\"/themes/custom/yaffs/logo.svg\" alt=\"Home\" />\n    </a>\n      \n  </div>\n\n                          <button type=\"button\" class=\"navbar-toggle\" data-toggle=\"collapse\" data-target=\"#navbar-collapse\">\n            <span class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" 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sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>Yaffs1 memory footprint</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/archives/yaffs1-memory-footprint\" class=\"book is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p>Yaffs claims a \'low memory footprint\', but what exactly does that mean? How low is low?</p>\n<p>Calculating an exact footprint is no easy task. There are many dependencies. Here is an approximation for Yaffs1 on Linux, assuming the standard block size of 512bytes per page and 16kB per block.</p>\n<ol>\n<li>Code size. This is dependent on various factors including CPU choice, optiomisation options etc. As a rough guide, the yaffs.o Linux module for x86 is around 55kBytes. This could be made smaller by stripping the debug text and ECC code if you don\'t need that. </li>\n<li>Run-time data structures. Some of these are fixed size and others are generated in runtime and change as your file structures change. As a rough guide though I will give the following:\n<ol type=\"a\">\n <li>Each yaffs partition needs a device structure of less than 1kB + approx 2-4kB stack with the current implementation. </li>\n <li>If shortOpCaches are enabled, then 524 bytes per cache entry (5 to 10 is a good number). </li>\n <li>About 120 bytes per file. (With short name caching enabled) </li>\n <li>About 4 bytes per block of NAND (ie. about 128 bytes per MB of NAND). </li>\n <li>About 4kBytes of RAM per MB of NAND for building the file TNode trees that are used to locate the data chunks. </li>\n</ol>\n </li>\n</ol>\n<p>Thus for a system using a 64MByte NAND and say 500 files you can budget on approx:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>1) 55kBytes </li>\n<li>2a) 5kB </li>\n<li>2b) 3kB (5 cache entries) </li>\n<li>2c) 60kB </li>\n<li>2d) 16kB </li>\n<li>2e) 256kB </li>\n</ul>\n<b>Total 410kBytes</b>\n<p>The last item, the tnodes, is the biggest expense in Yaffs. This can be reduced significantly by using a larger page size.</p>\n<p>There are some opportunities to tune some of these numbers so please feel free to discusss further if required.</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label 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class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n        <ol class=\"breadcrumb\">\n          <li >\n                  <a href=\"/documents\">Documents</a>\n              </li>\n          <li  class=\"active\">\n                  Yaffs NAND flash failure mitigation\n              </li>\n      </ol>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>Yaffs NAND flash failure mitigation</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/documents/yaffs-nand-flash-failure-mitigation\" class=\"paper is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n      <footer>\n      \n      <div class=\"author\">\n        Submitted by <span><span lang=\"\" about=\"/user/admin\" typeof=\"schema:Person\" property=\"schema:name\" datatype=\"\">Admin</span></span>\n on <span>23 July, 2012 - 1:29am</span>\n        \n      </div>\n    </footer>\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n      <div class=\"field field--name-upload field--type-file field--label-hidden field--items\">\n              <div class=\"field--item\"><span class=\"file file--mime-application-pdf file--application-pdf icon-before\"><span class=\"file-icon\"><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-file text-primary\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></span><span class=\"file-link\"><a href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/downloads/YaffsNandFailureMitigation.pdf\" type=\"application/pdf; length=235109\" title=\"Open file in new window\" target=\"_blank\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" data-placement=\"bottom\">YaffsNandFailureMitigation.pdf</a></span><span class=\"file-size\">229.6 KB</span></span></div>\n          </div>\n  \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h2>1 Purpose</h2>\n<p>The purpose of this document is to give an understanding of NAND failure modes and the measures that Yaffs takes to mitigate against these.</p>\n<p>This document is intended to be easy reading, but some very light-weight physics is required to understand the way NAND works.</p>\n<h2>2 The NAND Cell</h2>\n<p>This section explains the internal construction of a NAND device which helps to explain the way that it fails. Each NAND cell consists of a floating gate field effect transistor, described below.</p>\n<h3>2.1 Floating Gate Field Effect Transistor</h3>\n<p>A FET is the fundamental switching element used in almost all digital electronics. A FET is a a semiconductor element that conducts when a charge is applied to the gate.</p>\n<p><img alt=\"\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/fets.gif\" /></p>\n<p>A FET is a type of semiconductor device with a semiconducting region between the the source and drain connections, an insulating oxide and a gate region. The oxide prevents current from flowing from the gate to the oxide, but applying a voltage to the gate injects charge into the gate, creating an electric field which influences the conductive properties of the semiconductor region.</p>\n<p>In a regular FET, a conductive channel is formed between the source and drain when a suitable control voltage is applied to the gate. The current passed by the channel is dependent on the voltage (ie. the strength of the gate field). For now we will ignore analogue levels and just consider binary levels where the gate is either conducting or not. This effectively makes a switch that is controlled by the control gate.</p>\n<p>The floating gate FET is just like a regular FET except that it has an extra floating gate. This floating gate is able to trap charge between the two insulating layers. The trapped charge modifies the local electric field and thus modifies the effect of the control gate. If the floating gate has extra electrons (negative charge) then the control gate must be raised to a higher voltage to make the FET conduct.</p>\n<p>So a regular FET is conductive (on) when the control gate is high and is non-conductive (off) when the control gate is low. A floating gate FET, however, is only non-conductive (off) when the floating gate is charged and the gate is low. This gives us an output that is dependent on the floating gate and a way to read it (the gate).</p>\n<table>\n<colgroup>\n <col /> <col /> <col />\n</colgroup>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Floating gate charge</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Control gate</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Source/drain channel</strong></p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Neutral(unprogrammed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>High</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>On (1)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Neutral(unprogrammed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Low</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>On (1)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Charged(programmed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>High</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>On (1)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Charged(programmed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Low</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Off (0)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>The tunneling oxide is insulating at low voltages but allows quantum tunneling (Fowler-Nordheim tunneling) at higher voltages. This FN-tunneling provides a mechanism to inject or remove charge from the floating gate by applying high voltages to the control gate or the body.</p>\n<p><img alt=\"\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/fn-tunnelling.gif\" /></p>\n<p>By applying a high positive voltage to the control gate, electrons are drawn into the floating gate, resulting in a programmed gate. Erasing is accomplished by the reverse operation which draws electrons out of the gate.</p>\n<p>So a floating gate FET is effectively a readable, programmable switch. In other words: memory!</p>\n<h3>2.2 NAND array layout</h3>\n<p>NAND flash gets its name from the way that the cells are arranged. NAND cells are arranged in chains called <em><strong>strings</strong></em>, typically 1 string per bit-position in the page n(for SLC). The length of the chain is the same as the number of pages per block. This arrangement uses far less silicon area than the NOR flash arrangement which reduces NAND cost and increases density. It does however also introduce some operational and reliability problems.</p>\n<p><img alt=\"\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/nand-page-select.gif\" /></p>\n<p>NAND is read by biasing the unselected pages with a high bias voltage and the selected pages with the low bias voltage. This means that the unselected cells are always on and the selected cells will be on or off according to the state of the floating gate.</p>\n<p>This means we have a matrix where:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>All unselected cells are on.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Selected unprogrammed cells are on</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Selected programmed cells are off.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Since only one cell in a string is selected at a time, the whole string is on if the selected cell is unprogrammed and is off if the selected cell is programmed. Thus, even though the cells in a string are all in series we can still access them individually.</p>\n<p>Well, that\'s how it would work in a perfect world anyway!</p>\n<p>The string and block arrangement means that it takes quite a while ( typically a few µsec) for the voltage of the string to stabilize after the selection has been made. This stabilization time is the cause of the “access time” delay when accessing NAND flash.</p>\n<h3>3 Fault Modes</h3>\n<p>Sit back for a moment and consider everything that must come together for the NAND flash to work and all the ways things can go wrong:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Of course there can be fabrication faults where defects cause short circuits and open circuits within the chip. These types of fault apply to all chips type, not just flash.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Each cell has two oxide layers trapping the floating gate charge, one of which is semi-permeable to support tunneling. If either of these layers is too thick, the gate will be unresponsive. If they are too thin then the gate will tunnel too easily or will leak. If there are impurities in the oxide then the layers may become resistive and “leak”, thus causing the charge to change and possibly causing the state to change.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>The floating gate state can change by either gaining or losing charge. If charge is lost, then a programmed cell may become unprogrammed (a 0 changes to a 1). If charge is gained, then an unprogrammed cell can become programmed.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>In very extreme cases, a programmed cell can gain further negative charge and become over-programmed. This means that even if the high read bias voltage is applied to the control gate the FET does not become conductive. In this state, a cell will read as programmed (0) even if it is not selected. This means that the whole string will always read zero irrespective of which page is selected. This fault mode will persist until the cell is erased.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>These devices are made very cheaply. Flash parts with tens of billions of NAND cells cost only a few dollars. There is little money to spend on individual part testing.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Extending the previous state/selection table with the over-programmed fault state, we now have:</p>\n<table>\n<colgroup>\n <col /> <col /> <col />\n</colgroup>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Floating gate charge</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Control gate</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Source/drain channel</strong></p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Neutral(unprogrammed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>High</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>On (1)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Neutral(unprogrammed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Low</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>On (1)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Charged(programmed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>High</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>On (1)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Charged(programmed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Low</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Off(0)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Over-charged(over-programmed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>High</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Off(0)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Over-charged(over-programmed)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Low</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Off(0)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<h2>4 Fault Mechanisms</h2>\n<p>This section explains some of the common NAND flash failure modes.</p>\n<h3>4.1 General chip fault</h3>\n<p>A NAND is a chip built with normal fabrication techniques and is thus prone to fail just like any other chip. Some of these faults can be isolated by marking faulty blocks. In some cases (eg. Damaged inter-block logic) the whole chip is discarded.</p>\n<p>Yaffs does not use the bad blocks, so they have no negative impact on the performance of the file system 9apart from a small reduction in the amount of storage available).</p>\n<h3>4.2 Oxide degradation</h3>\n<p>Every programming/erasure cycle causes some degradation of the oxide layers. Over many cycles this has a tendency to degrade the properties of the oxide layer. Excessive degradation can cause the cell to fail to erase or program, but more commonly just makes the other fault modes more prevalent.</p>\n<p>The primary mechanism of oxide degradation is that charge becomes permanently trapped within the oxide layer in a way that it is not cleared by programming and erasure. The resulting field disrupts both the FET\'s conductive channel and the effectiveness of the F-N tunneling.</p>\n<p>As a result of this field disruption, two things happen:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>The FN tunneling is disrupted which means that the programming and erasure take longer to complete. Eventually programming and erasure might fail (see Program/erase failure below).</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>The programming and erasure is far more marginal meaning that less leakage is required to corrupt a bit value (see Charge leakage below).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>This degradation is permanent and incremental and is not cleared by erasure. This degradation is the cause of the endurance term in the NAND specification. Typical NAND flash endurance is 10,000 (MLC) to 100,000(SLC) program/erasure cycles.</p>\n<p>Endurance issues are largely minimized by wear leveling and write-path caching.</p>\n<p>Blocks that become too unreliable are retired from use.</p>\n<h3>4.3 Program/erase failure</h3>\n<p>Programming and erase operations are controlled by a built-in state machine that applies the programming/erasure voltages for a while then check whether the operation has succeeded. This is typically performed by an iterative algorithm that will time out if too many cycles are required.</p>\n<p>A failure is signaled in the chip status register when the built-in programming/erasure mechanisms fail to accomplish the programming or erasure within the maximum program/erasure time.</p>\n<p>It is important to realize that a programming failure is only checked on bits being set to a zero. If one bits are inadvertently set to zero then these are not raised as programming errors but are considered to be program disturb errors.</p>\n<p>Program/erase errors are generally the result of excessive oxide degradation.</p>\n<p>Yaffs handles programming/erasure errors as unrecoverable “hard errors”. If these are encountered then useful data is copied off the block and the whole block is permanently retired by marking the block as a bad block.</p>\n<p>These are the only failures that the NAND devices will actually identify. All other failures need to be detected in software.</p>\n<h3>4.4 Charge leakage</h3>\n<p>The oxide isolating the floating gate is not a perfect insulator and charge can escape very slowly, particularly at temperature extremes and when the oxide had been degraded by extensive use. High radiation environments can also make this worse.</p>\n<p>An effective way to handle charge leakage is to use ECC to detect and correct errors. Blocks with errors are rewritten on a fresh block allowing the data to be recreated before unrecoverable errors occur.</p>\n<h3>4.5 Program disturb</h3>\n<p>Program disturb happens when a bit is unintentionally programmed (1 to 0) during a programming operation. The affected bit can be in the same page or elsewhere in the block.</p>\n<p>Program disturb is caused by bias conditions in the flash block during programming. Even though full programming voltage is only applied to the cells being programmed, the other cells are also subject to lesser voltages and minor tunneling can occur. This effect is far less than regular programming but is more than read disturb. However, since a page is only programmed once before the block is erased, there is no multiplier effect as there is in read disturb.</p>\n<p>This condition is made worse by random programming in the block and by applying multiple partial writes to the pages.</p>\n<p>Yaffs1 only writes pages in a block in sequential order and writes pages only once, except for writing deletion markers.</p>\n<p>Yaffs2 does not write deletion markers and thus only programs pages sequentially and only once.</p>\n<p>Thus, Yaffs2 is far less likely to cause write disturb. Yaffs1 should only be used with devices that are tolerant of partial page programming.</p>\n<p>Program disturb within the same page can be corrected by verifying the page after programming.</p>\n<p>ECC provides a mechanism to correct infrequent program disturb errors.</p>\n<h3>4.6 Read disturb</h3>\n<p>Whenever a page is read, the other pages in the block are biased at a read-inhibit voltage to turn them on. While this voltage is not as high as the programming voltage, some very slight F-N tunneling can occur. With sufficient leakage the cell state may change, or the cell may become over-programmed. This effect is known as read disturb.</p>\n<p>Read disturb only impacts the pages in the block that are <em><strong>not</strong></em> <strong></strong>being read. This makes it difficult to detect in some systems. For example, consider a block where only the first page is read repeatedly. Other pages in the block may be incurring read disturb but these are happening without the effect being noticed by software. By the time the pages are eventually read, the read disturb may have caused more bit errors than the ECC is able to fix.</p>\n<p>Thankfully the problem is seldom that bad. Read disturb is very gradual. Under worst case conditions read disturb effects are expected to happen only after approximately 1 million page reads on the block for SLC flash or 100,000 page reads on the block for most MLC flash (or in other words, 10 times the endurance number).</p>\n<p>Be warned though that as process sizes shrink, read disturb is getting more problematic. Some flash parts are prone to read disturb after 20,000 page reads.</p>\n<p>The read disturb effect for a single read is far less than the write disturb effect for a single write. However, each page is only written once per block erase cycle but may be read many times. Therefore the cumulated effect of many read disturbs can cause problems.</p>\n<p>Read disturb effects are cleared by erasing the block.</p>\n<p>Various mechanisms are being implemented to correct read disturb in Yaffs, though these have not yet been implemented.</p>\n<p>The first mechanism is to count the number of page reads on each block. When a certain threshold is reached (say 50,000 reads for an MLC part), the block is rewritten and the count is zeroed.</p>\n<p>The second mechanism is to periodically read pages in the block. eg. Every 256 times a block has a page read we read an additional page to check for read disturb. If read disturb has happened then copy onto a fresh page.</p>\n<p>In addition, ECC does provide some benefit, but is insufficient on its own.</p>\n<h2>5 Decoding NAND reliability statistics</h2>\n<p>Many variables contribute to NAND reliability. These variables are inter-related in complex ways which mean that is is very difficult to try to isolate the variables from each other to fully characterize them. The major variables are:</p>\n<table>\n<colgroup>\n <col /> <col />\n</colgroup>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Temperature</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Temperature impacts the performance of the materials and thus impacts the movement of charge within the NAND cells.</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Storage time</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>This is related to the cell leakage. The leakage integrates over time so the longer the cells are stored, the more it changes.</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Manufacturing variance</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Operating voltage</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Erasure/programming cycles</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read cycles</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<h2>6 MLC vs SLC</h2>\n<p>Both multi-level cell (MLC) and single-level cell (SLC) NAND cells work by trapping charge in the floating gate. By trapping different amounts of charge in the gate it is possible to modify the conductance of the string. MLC store two bits in once cell by using three threshold voltages to distinguish different cell charge levels<a href=\"#sdfootnote1sym\">1</a>.</p>\n<p><img alt=\"\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/nand-mlc-vs-slc-cell-voltages.gif\" /></p>\n<p>In the case of SLC, the cells are erased by the erasure state machine until the cell voltage is below V erase. Programming is accomplished by programming until the voltage exceeds Vprog. On reading, the voltage is compared with Vread.</p>\n<p>MLC programming is accomplished in the same way, except that there are multiple Vprogs and Vreads. This means that there is far less margin for error and cell disturbance is far more likely to cause state changes.</p>\n<p>For this reason, MLC is less reliable, has lower endurance numbers and lower read-disturb numbers. MLC thus requires far better ECC strategies to ensure reliable storage.</p>\n<p>But MLC is cheaper!</p>\n<h2>7 Summary</h2>\n<p>In summary, NAND flash has many failure modes but these can be corrected in software to provide a reliable storage solution. Any flash storage mechanisms that do not provide sufficient coverage of different fault modes should be considered suspect.</p>\n<table>\n<colgroup>\n <col /> <col /> <col /> <col /> <col /> <col /> <col />\n</colgroup>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Chip Fault</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Degradation</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>P/E failure</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Leakage</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Write Disturb</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Read Disturb</strong></p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>NAND self check</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Block retirement</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Wear levelling</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Write Verification</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Read counting/ re-write</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Future</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Infrequent read checking</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Future</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Future</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Future</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>ECC</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p><strong>Occasional rewrite of oldest data</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&nbsp;</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Yes</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>Thus all fault mechanisms are covered by at least two corrective mechanisms (read disturb correcting features are planned).</p>\n<p><a href=\"#sdfootnote1anc\">1</a>Some MLC parts store more than 2 bits per cell, Storing n bits requires 2n levels.</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Thu, 26 Oct 2017 14:20:38 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:10167:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"jE_LnCnaOnFLaGXr0vj1cyY3JNPNB2JlVsOVM3Q02U0Xx_hqQKdzkRTaBuNwT1yGW7UwL05OPQ\">\n    <title>Comparison between Yaffs (Yaffs2) and JFFS2 | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"jE_LnCnaOnFLaGXr0vj1cyY3JNPNB2JlVsOVM3Q02U0Xx_hqQKdzkRTaBuNwT1yGW7UwL05OPQ\">\n    <js-placeholder 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Comparison between Yaffs (Yaffs2) and JFFS2</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/comparison-between-yaffs-yaffs2-and-jffs2\" typeof=\"schema:Article\" class=\"article is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"Comparison between Yaffs (Yaffs2) and JFFS2\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><p>On Friday 02 March 2007 10:59, Charles F Johnson wrote:</p>\n\n<p>\"I\'m trying to understand the relative merits of JFFS2 vs YAFFS2. The response on the YAFFS mailing list is quite positive as far as leading me to believe that there are actual products shipping.\"</p>\n\n<p><br />\nCharles Manning replied:<br />\nAt a technical level, it is very difficult to make X vs Y comparisons because there are many factors involved which manifest differently on different systems therefore \'your mileage will vary\'. But, as a general rule of thumb, the following might help:</p>\n\n<p>1) YAFFS uses less run-time RAM to hold its state, so YAFFS scales better than JFFS2. There are quite a few systems using large NAND arrays (the largest partitions I know of are around the 6Gbyte mark).<br /><br />\n2) YAFFS garbage collection is simpler and faster, typically making for better performance under hard writing.<br /><br />\n3) YAFFS uses a whole page per file for headers, and does not provide compression. This means that JFFS2 is probably a better fit to small partitions. The flip side is that a lot of data (eg. MP3) does not compress very well, and enabling compression really hurts performance.<br /><br />\n4) While YAFFS has been used on NOR, it does not fit very well (because YAFFS does not use erase suspend). Thus if you\'re using smaller NAND partitions and using JFFS2 on NOR, then a JFFS2-only solution is very appealing.<br /><br />\nAll the above can generally boil down to: If you\'re using less than about 64MB the pain vs gain might play in favour of JFFS2. As you increase partition size, YAFFS makes more and more sense.</p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label 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