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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n        <ol class=\"breadcrumb\">\n          <li >\n                  <a href=\"/documents\">Documents</a>\n              </li>\n          <li  class=\"active\">\n                  Considerations in Choosing a Flash File System\n              </li>\n      </ol>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>Considerations in Choosing a Flash File System</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/documents/considerations-choosing-flash-file-system\" class=\"paper is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n      <footer>\n      \n      <div class=\"author\">\n        Submitted by <span><span lang=\"\" about=\"/user/laurie\" typeof=\"schema:Person\" property=\"schema:name\" datatype=\"\">Laurie</span></span>\n on <span>28 May, 2014 - 1:53pm</span>\n        \n      </div>\n    </footer>\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n      <div class=\"field field--name-upload field--type-file field--label-hidden field--items\">\n              <div class=\"field--item\"><span class=\"file file--mime-application-pdf file--application-pdf icon-before\"><span class=\"file-icon\"><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-file text-primary\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></span><span class=\"file-link\"><a href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/downloads/ConsiderationsInChoosingAFlashFileSystem_0.pdf\" type=\"application/pdf; length=131376\" title=\"Open file in new window\" target=\"_blank\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" data-placement=\"bottom\">ConsiderationsInChoosingAFlashFileSystem.pdf</a></span><span class=\"file-size\">128.3 KB</span></span></div>\n          </div>\n  \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p>We have been developing flash file system for embedded systems since 1995. During that time, we have gained a wealth of knowledge and experience.</p>\n<p>This document outlines some of the major issues that must be considered when selecting a Flash File system for embedded use. It also explains how using the Yaffs File System increases reliability, reduces risk and saves money.</p>\n<h1 class=\"western\" style=\"page-break-before: always\">Introduction</h1>\n<p>As embedded system complexity increases and flash storage prices decrease, we see more use of embedded file systems to store data, and so data corruption and loss has become an important cause of system failure.</p>\n<p>When Aleph One began the development of Yaffs in late 2001, we built on experience in flash file system design since 1995. This experience helped to identify the key factors in making Yaffs a fast and robust flash file system now being widely used around the world.</p>\n<p>Although it was originally developed for Linux, Yaffs was designed to be highly portable. This has allowed Yaffs to be ported to many different OSs (including Linux, BSD, Windows CE) and numerous RTOSs (including VxWorks, eCos and pSOS).</p>\n<p>Yaffs is written in fully portable C code and has been used on many different CPU architectures – both little- and big-endian. These include ARM, x86 and PowerPC, soft cores such as NIOS and Microblaze and even various DSP architectures.</p>\n<p>We believe that the Yaffs code base has been used on more OS types and more CPU types than any other file system code base.</p>\n<p>Since its introduction, Yaffs has been used in hundreds of different products and hundreds of millions of different devices in widely diverse application areas from mining to aerospace and everything in between.</p>\n<p>Specific examples include:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>communications (two-way radios and infrastructure, mobile phones, cell towers, modems, routers...)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>retail (point of sale, inventory control...)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>entertaiment (video cameras, TV sets, DVD players, set-top boxes...)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>sewing machines and office copiers</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>industrial equipment (PLCs, machinery control...)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>construction/surveying equipment (theodolites, machinery control...)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>avionics and satellite equipment</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>transport (bus, train and traffic-signal management/information systems...)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>and many more.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p><br />\n<br />\n</p>\n<p><i><b>You may be using Yaffs every day without even realising it.</b></i></p>\n<p><i><b>We have a gratifying number of repeat customers for licences.</b></i></p>\n<h1 class=\"western\"><br />\n<br />\n</h1>\n<h1 class=\"western\" style=\"page-break-before: always\">Do Embedded Systems have different file system needs?</h1>\n<p>To answer this question, we really have to start by asking a slightly different question:</p>\n<p><i>How are embedded systems different than regular computers?</i></p>\n<p style=\"font-style: normal\">When a customer buys a regular computer system, they go shopping for a computer. They talk to the salesperson about Gigabytes, Megahertz and operating systems. They treat it as a computer and expect it to behave like a computer (including shutting it down properly and occasionally having file system problems or needing upgrades).</p>\n<p style=\"font-style: normal\">When they buy a fancy sewing machine, it probably has an embedded file system controlling it. The customer went shopping for a sewing machine and bought a computer that they don\'t even know about. They don\'t treat it like a computer, but like a sewing machine; they certainly do not expect it to have file system problems.</p>\n<h4 class=\"western\">How people treat computers differently from embedded systems</h4>\n<table cellpadding=\"4\" style=\"page-break-inside: avoid; width: 100%; border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<col width=\"85*\" /> <col width=\"85*\" /> <col width=\"85*\" />\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: 1px solid #000000; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0.1cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\"><b>Issue</b></span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: 1px solid #000000; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0.1cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\"><b>Computer</b></span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border: 1px solid #000000; padding: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\"><b>Embedded system</b></span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Shut down</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">User expects to do a clean shut down.</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: 1px solid #000000; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">User just unplugs device.</span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Reinstalling software</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Users expect to have to deal with corruption and reinstall software occasionally.</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: 1px solid #000000; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Users do not expect to deal with upgrades or data loss or corruption.</span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%; height: 11px;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Software Upgrade Failure</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Annoying</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: 1px solid #000000; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Can be devastating</span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Attitude to data loss</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Annoying, but expected</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: 1px solid #000000; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">System has failed.</span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Cost of failure</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Relatively minor</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: 1px solid #000000; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Can shut down factory or even cause injury/death.</span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Delayed boot due to file system recovery</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: none; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Annoying, but expected.</span></p>\n  </td>\n <td style=\"border-top: none; border-bottom: 1px solid #000000; border-left: 1px solid #000000; border-right: 1px solid #000000; padding-top: 0cm; padding-bottom: 0.1cm; padding-left: 0.1cm; padding-right: 0.1cm; width: 33%;\">\n <p><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">This is as bad as a failure.</span></p>\n  </td>\n</tr>\n</table>\n<p style=\"font-style: normal\"><br />\n<br />\n</p>\n<p>So people have different attitudes to computers and embedded systems. As a result, embedded systems need to be designed differently from computers. That is particularly important with reliability issues.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-bottom: 0.01cm\"><i><b>Data corruption is a leading cause of embedded system failure, </b></i> </p>\n<p style=\"margin-bottom: 0.01cm\"><i><b>product returns and warranty costs.</b></i> </p>\n<p style=\"margin-bottom: 0.01cm\"><br />\n<br />\n</p>\n<p>The differences outlined above show some of the reasons why embedded systems must perform differently to regular computers, particularly in the way data storage is handled. These examples allow us to identify some very important product-level criteria for embedded file systems:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>High resilience against data corruption, particularly in the event of power loss.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Prompt file system recovery after power loss - no excessive time penalty</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Simple data integrity model to ensure data is not compromised.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Of course we also want the embedded file system to have some other very useful features:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>High read/write performance with low latency.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Familiar programming models to facilitate development.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Proven track record to reduce risk.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Full source code access to aid development.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Portability to provide a future-proof solution for new products.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p><i><b>Selecting an appropriate file system is crucial to product success.</b></i></p>\n<h1 class=\"western\" style=\"page-break-before: always\">Why does power failure corrupt data?</h1>\n<p>Most power fail data loss in a File System is caused through two mechanisms:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Corruption of allocation tables </p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Loss of cached data that was not yet written to the flash.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<h2 class=\"western\">Corruption of allocation tables and similar structures.</h2>\n<p>Most file systems have allocation tables, bitmaps or similar structures which hold pointers showing which parts of the file storage medium are being used and which parts of which file are stored there. These tables are critical to looking up files and data in the file system. If they are corrupted, then files and data become corrupted. In the most dramatic cases, table corruption can destroy the whole system. </p>\n<p>Some file systems make these tables more robust by keeping two copies, or by using journaling (which keeps a short log of changes, allowing the tables to be fixed up if the table changing gets interrupted) but this causes extra writes to the media, making the file system slower.</p>\n<p>These tables are typically updated many times during writing any file, so there are multiple opportunities for the tables to be corrupted or left in an inconsistent state due to a power loss.</p>\n<p>If power is interrupted at a critical point, then some restoration (such as Microsoft chkdsk or booting in <span style=\"font-style: normal\">safe mode</span>) is often required to try to restore the tables. This may be automatic, but then system start-up is delayed.</p>\n<p>Yaffs is very different; it is a log structured file system which writes tagged data to the flash, and does not store allocation tables or such.</p>\n<p><i><b>If it isn\'t even stored, it can\'t be corrupted!</b></i></p>\n<p>This has three dramatic effects:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Yaffs has no tables, so is immune to these failure modes.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>There are no extra tables to be written, so Yaffs does not have to resort to caching to achieve good performance.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Fewer flash writes means less flash wear, improving product life and reducing power consumption.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>When a Yaffs file system is booted, the normal boot up sequence takes care of building up system state. There is thus no need for any special restoration code to be run. A boot up after a power failure is not a special recovery condition, it is just a normal boot up.</p>\n<p><i><b>Yaffs does not have, or need, special recovery handling.</b></i></p>\n<h2 class=\"western\" style=\"page-break-after: avoid\"><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><i><b>Trade-off in cached data</b></i></span></h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">File systems tend to be inefficient in the way they write data. Writing just one file requires many changes to the allocation tables; writing many files requires far more changes, often to those same tables. By delaying those writes and holding data in RAM briefly the file system can do fewer writes to achieve the same set of changes. This can improve write speed, at a price.</span></span></p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Data which has not been written but just cached in RAM is vulnerable while it is there; it can all be lost if power fails, even including some that the FS had apparently written already.</span></span></p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Most file systems support functions to reduce this inefficiency and force the cache to be written out, but this may take many seconds, leaving a significant period of vulnerability, and delaying system operations. Excessive use of these functions to improve reliability will typically impair write performance.</span></span></p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">A particularly serious example of critical data loss can occur if power or communication fails during a firmware upgrade. Such a failure cripples the product, which must be returned for servicing. Yaffs has caching policies and data integrity models which make it easier to avoid this kind of fatal failure, and which have been tested very extensively. </span></span> </p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">Since Yaffs is inherently faster and simpler, it does not need deep caching. The Yaffs cache is small and used only for data alignment purposes and improving the throughput of very small reads and writes. Yaffs files are always flushed from the cache when they are closed. Yaffs also provides its own cache-flushing functions, but these are very fast because the cache is small.</span></span></p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\"><i><b>By the time Yaffs closes a file, all the data is guaranteed to be safe on the flash.</b></i></span></span></p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\">This simple caching policy makes it very easy for programmers to write software that is robust against power loss and avoids obscure failure modes. The simplicity confers more reliable operation, faster product development and huge savings in development and maintenance costs.</span></span></p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Liberation Sans, sans-serif;\"><span style=\"font-size: 11pt; font-size: small; font-size: small;\"><i><b>Reliable file systems pay for themselves many times over.</b></i></span></span></p>\n<h1 class=\"western\" style=\"page-break-before: always\">Product risk reduction</h1>\n<p>At first glance, a file system seems like it should be a simple body of code: just a few functions that read, write data and look things up by name. However, the reality is much more complex than that.</p>\n<p>One of the most challenging aspects of file systems is that errors are stored and incremental. Unlike most software errors which can be cleared by a reset, storage errors are persistent.</p>\n<p><i><b>A reboot will typically not fix file-system errors.</b></i></p>\n<p>Customers might tolerate a product that needs to be reset once in a while, but file system failures are often fatal. As a result, file system issues can be very damaging to long-term product reliability.</p>\n<p>This is further complicated by flash memory. NAND flash is the only type of semiconductor hardware which leaves the factory with known variable errors, expecting the file system software to handle the problems.</p>\n<p>Flash, NAND in particular, has its own failure modes and these are best handled by a file system specifically designed for NAND.</p>\n<p><i><b>Yaffs was specifically designed to use with NAND and NOR flash chips.</b></i></p>\n<p>Flash memory chip errors may only show up after the product has been used a while, or in a fraction of the flash parts. Typical testing during development (e.g. bench testing) will often fail to expose all types of flash chip error, and others will only be exposed during pilot- or early-production. These put release dates at risk, which can cause huge revenue losses.</p>\n<p>We have a few clients who only determined that they had file system issues when they did a pilot run. That prompted them to try Yaffs and get their products shipping. While we are glad they ended up with a good product, unfortunately they lost revenue and customer goodwill.</p>\n<p><i><b>Finding problems late in development creates business risk.</b></i></p>\n<p>It is thus not surprising that much of our business is repeat business. </p>\n<h1 class=\"western\" style=\"page-break-before: always\">Yaffs testing</h1>\n<p>Testing on its own does not create good software but it does help to verify that the software is working correctly.</p>\n<p>Yaffs has many automated tests that are run on a regular basis. Automated tests allow the testing to be run without human intervention, thus allowing more testing to be done.</p>\n<p>The tests are too numerous to discuss completely (see the Further Information below). W<span style=\"font-weight: normal\">e</span> highlight one: the power-fail stress test.</p>\n<p>The power-fail stress test is a test harness that uses software simulations of flash devices and some software and scripts to simulate the effects of removing power from a Yaffs-based system <span style=\"font-weight: normal\">while it is writing</span> to flash. This test is normally run for 100,0000 to 1 million power-fail simulation cycles, taking many days.</p>\n<p>This particular test suite was originally developed in 2008 during the development of some new features. The tests are very rigorous. In the beginning, this test suite would find a problem after less than 100 power fail iterations. As we identified and fixed the bugs, this number crept up and we now run millions of cycles without seeing a single problem.</p>\n<p><i><b>Yaffs survives millions of power failures in simulation test benches.</b></i></p>\n<p>In addition, many of our clients have also run hardware power failure tests, using a relay and a micro-controller to kill power to the device under test. They have been very satisfied with the results.</p>\n<p style=\"margin-bottom: 0cm; orphans: 0; widows: 0; page-break-before: auto\"><br />\n</p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 16pt; font-size: large; font-size: large;\"><b>Licensing</b></span></p>\n<p>Yaffs is available under GNU Public License V2, GPL2, from our git repository at <a href=\"http://www.yaffs.net/\">www.yaffs.net</a>. You may use that code for testing free of charge and for as long as you want.</p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: normal\"><i>You will be using it under the conditions of GPL2 with the obligation to release your associated source code when you start to sell or distribute a product.</i></p>\n<p style=\"font-weight: normal\"><i>We can then sell you a Licence to use Yaffs which removes that obligation and protects your intellectual property.</i></p>\n<p><i><b>With Yaffs you can try before you buy!</b></i></p>\n<h1 class=\"western\">Conclusions</h1>\n<p>Selecting a robust flash file system is key to :</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>building a successful product.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>reducing risk, warranty costs and liability.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>reducing development costs.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p><i><b>Yaffs has proven itself and can pay for itself many times over.</b></i></p>\n<h1 class=\"western\">Further information</h1>\n<p>This document is intentionally brief. There are many documents at <a href=\"http://www.yaffs.net/\">http://www.yaffs.net</a> for those that want more information, including:</p>\n<p><b>How Yaffs Works:</b> detailed description of internal design.</p>\n<p><b>Yaffs Robustness and Testing:</b> how we know Yaffs handles various flash failure scenarios.</p>\n<p><br />\n<br />\n</p>\n<p>For further information please contact <a href=\"denied:mailto:info@yaffs.net\">info@yaffs.net</a> or access <a href=\"http://www.yaffs.net/\">http://www.yaffs.net</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Sun, 19 Nov 2017 23:58:59 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:9170:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"ZeO9Jc8nYZahBaIBykqeYny-pTyxCWfzd3p-bL12C6UJBXNdY3PO502vt5sWVFhU4tbBlqGY4g\">\n    <title>Case history | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"ZeO9Jc8nYZahBaIBykqeYny-pTyxCWfzd3p-bL12C6UJBXNdY3PO502vt5sWVFhU4tbBlqGY4g\">\n    <js-placeholder 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class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>Case history</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/books/case-history\" class=\"book full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><p>An example of the application of Yaffs in a demanding environment</p>\n\n<p><strong>NASA TESS Mission </strong>This <strong>Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)</strong> will discover thousands of exoplanets in orbit around the brightest stars in the sky.</p>\n\n<p>It is a project regularly using our Yaffs File System to store incoming data and preserve it, in the rigours of the space environment, before sending it back to Earth.</p>\n\n<p>In a two-year survey of the solar neighborhood, TESS will monitor more than 200,000 stars for temporary drops in brightness caused by planetary transits. This first-ever spaceborne all-sky transit survey will identify planets ranging from Earth-sized to gas giants, around a wide range of stellar types and orbital distances. No ground-based survey can achieve this feat.</p>\n\n<p>Some File Systems are not robust enough to be suitable for such exacting work.</p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Mon, 20 Nov 2017 14:35:42 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:9767:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"fdbBMYB8Ia_Pm2JhppGCG837FyuyorVGx_77lghbOj1r3LH36N_nNzazc-pdnJlI42VTss-riQ\">\n    <title>Data is safe with Yaffs... | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"fdbBMYB8Ia_Pm2JhppGCG837FyuyorVGx_77lghbOj1r3LH36N_nNzazc-pdnJlI42VTss-riQ\">\n    <js-placeholder 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href=\"/documents\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n        <ol class=\"breadcrumb\">\n          <li >\n                  <a href=\"/features\">The best bits</a>\n              </li>\n          <li  class=\"active\">\n                  Data is safe with Yaffs...\n              </li>\n      </ol>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>Data is safe with Yaffs...</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/features/data-safe-yaffs\" class=\"what-is-special-about-yaffs is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n  <div class=\"field field--name-field-icon-text field--type-string field--label-above\">\n    <div class=\"field--label\">Icon - text</div>\n              <div class=\"field--item\">fa-lock</div>\n          </div>\n\n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><p>Yaffs provides bad block handling and ECC algorithms to handle deficiencies in NAND flash.</p>\n\n<p>It is a log-structured file system which makes it very robust to corruptions caused by power failures.</p>\n\n<p>We spend about 60% of development time on testing Yaffs, and our test harness is available for download so you can check the testing and perform some yourself.</p>\n\n<p>We\'ve performed hundreds of thousands of tests to make sure that Yaffs is as safe as we can make it, even in the even of a power failure during a firmware update.</p>\n\n<p>You can find full details of the Yaffs testing regime in our paper <a href=\"http://www.yaffs.net/documents/yaffs-robustness-and-testing\">http://www.yaffs.net/documents/yaffs-robustness-and-testing</a>  including all the details on the power-fail stress tests, the Yaffs Direct API tests for commercial RTOSs, Linux testing, and fuzz testing where we deliberately corrupt Yaffs file systems to check that Yaffs can still mount.</p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">JFFS2 and NAND study</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/archive/jffs2-and-nand-study\" typeof=\"schema:WebPage\" class=\"page full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"JFFS2 and NAND study\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p>For the purposes of this discussion, the term NAND will mean both AND and NAND type flash memories, both sharing similar properties from a system perspective.</p>\n<h3>A bit of history -</h3>\n<p>History on my perspective, not the history of JFFS2.</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>Some years ago I wrote a flash file system for Trimble. Trimble patented this system. This FFS runs on NOR flash and uses a concepts very similar to JFFS to overcome problems associated with Flash Translation Layers, FTLs and flash. This FFS was rigorously tested for block failure, stress tested in various ways and deliberately crashed with an emulator at critical stages to attempt to damage data integrity. The FFS held up to all this.</p>\n<p>Thus, when looking at JFFS2 I can immediately understand why certain things are being done and various benefits of this approach over FTLs.</p>\n<p>At first I thought that using an FTL would be better than JFFS2 for NAND because NAND has a different set of constraints. After a bit of analysis, I came around to thinking that using JFFS2 would still be better than an FTL mainly because JFFS2 dispenses with the need for a logical to physical translation layer.</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>NOR and NAND</h3>\n<p>The following table highlights some of the important properties of NOR and NAND flash. This table holds true for most devices, though there are some odd-ball devices out there.</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<table border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"1\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px; width: 568px;\">\n<tbody>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p><strong>NOR</strong></p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p><strong>NAND</strong></p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Cost $HIGHER</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Cost LOWER</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Low density (approx 8MB max device size)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Higher density (approx 256MB max device size)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Linear random access:</p>\n  <ul>\n   <li>\n   <p>Like RAM</p>\n    </li>\n   <li>\n   <p>Can be used for XIP</p>\n    </li>\n  </ul>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Sector read/write:</p>\n  <ul>\n   <li>\n   <p>Almost like a disk.</p>\n    </li>\n   <li>\n   <p>Can\'t be used for XIP</p>\n    </li>\n  </ul>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Structured as erasable blocks of 8kB to 128kB typical.</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Structured as erasable blocks of 32x512-byte pages. Each page has 16-bytes of extra management data.</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Endurance 100k to 1M erasures</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Endurance 100k to 1M erasures</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Erase time 1second/erasable block</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Erase time 2ms</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Designed as ROM replacements</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Designed as mass storage replacements</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Byte-by-byte programming allowing single-bit modification. Any single bit can be modified from a 1 to a 0 by programming that byte. However, the only way to modify a 0 to a 1 is to erase the entire erasable block.</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Page or partial-page programming. A page may be programmed a maximum number of times. After that number of times, the erasable block must be erased to allow further programming. Write operations can only modify 1s to 0s. Changing 0s to 1s requires an erasure.</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Random access programming.</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Pages must be written sequentially within a block.</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr valign=\"top\">\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>No bad blocks when delivered, but the devices wear out. Thus file systems should be fault tolerant.</p>\n   </td>\n  <td style=\"width: 281px;\">\n  <p>Bad blocks are expected when the devices are delivered. Further degradation is expected with use. Thus fault tolerance is an absolute necessity.</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>It is important to note the various differences between NOR and NAND flash, because these are material in choosing the appropriate file systems for each. In particular:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>The erasure times are very different. This impacts on the selection of appropriate garbage collection and erasure strategies. NOR\'s 1 second erasure time is significant and needs to be considered; NAND\'s 2msec erasure time is virtually insignificant.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>The programming access restrictions that apply to NAND do not apply to NOR.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Errors are far more likely in NAND devices, therefore error detection and correction is highly desirable.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>NAND flash is arranged in pages/sectors of 512b and is inherently block structured.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Both families of flash technology have significant usage restrictions which require special consideration when using the devices for file storage:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>All flash memory blocks can only endure a limited number of erasure cycles. Some wear levelling strategy is required to prevent often-used sectors wearing out faster.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Sectors, are smaller than an erasable block. Thus, some garbage collection strategy is required to reclaim deleted/dirty sectors. To accomplish this, the \"good data\" must be copied off the selected block so that the whole block can be erased without losing data.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>If a part of a file needs to be overwritten, it is a limitation of flash memory that the new data cannot just overwrite the data at the same physical location. Instead the data must be written at a new location. Thus, some sort of logical to physical mapping layer (ie. FTL) or alternative data storage approach is required (eg. JFFS2). Such logical to physical decoupling is also required to perform garbage collection.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>Flash file systems in general</h3>\n<p>Flash file systems can essentially be implemented in two possible ways:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Custom-built file system. ie. the whole file system is designed so as to operate with flash memory. An example of this is JFFS2 or Microsoft FFS2.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Use a standard file system with a custom block driver (ie Flash Translation Layer - FTL).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Each of these approaches have their pros and cons. FTLs are particularly suited to situations where the file system is pre-ordained; a custom file system is able to be more \"flash friendly\".</p>\n<h3>An appraisal of the JFFS2 file system</h3>\n<p>JFFS, and JFFS2, achieve the logical decoupling between logical file positions and physical memory by using journaling. For this to work, the entire file system must be designed to support journaling - as appropriate to flash memory. This is not excessively restrictive with non-removable media and embedded systems since there is no need to conform to a legacy file system layout.</p>\n<p>JFFS2 is designed to support NOR flash, but is currently not suited to NAND flash since it does not handle bad blocks. If this deficiency was addressed would it be a better choice for NAND than an FTL? Probably not directly, some other tweaks would be needed.</p>\n<p>Journaling is particularly useful: Garbage collection, bad block handling and the restrictions which prevent flash sectors being overwritten mean that data in flash file systems is forever being moved around. For FTLs this means storing logical to physical mappings. Journaling neatly sidesteps this overhead.</p>\n<p>One of the most thorny issues with flash file systems is that there are many patents covering both FTL-like block drivers and various approaches to custom file systems.</p>\n<p>These patents are particularly restrictive in FTL-like block drivers (especially the M-Systems patents). JFFS2 does not violate any patents I am aware of, but it probably comes quite close to some - particularly the Trimble one. Thus it is highly beneficial to have a GPL\'ed system that can be extended.</p>\n<h3>Work needed</h3>\n<p>The following effort is required to make JFFS2 work with NAND:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>New MTDs for NAND flash. A new interface is probably required for NAND since many of the functions for NOR make no sense on NAND.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Bad block handling. This could be handled in a NOR-specific layer, although it should really be generically supported since NOR can fail too.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>ECC for data security. Code available from Samsung www. This can be handled as part of the write and read. When a journaling node is written, it should be verified. If the data cannot be retrieved, then a new node is created.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Fixed size journaling nodes (since NAND is page oriented with limited writes per page). This might make compression challenging - maybe compression can\'t be used with NAND? Anyway, fixed-size journaling nodes probably reduce fragmentation too (since there\'s an integer number of these per erasable block).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>The following are possible improvements:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Tuning garbage collection/erasure strategies to suite NAND (eg. NAND erasure time is much faster). Using fixed-size nodes will probably strip out a chunk of code too.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Attempting to use the spare 16 bytes per page for journalling tags (if there\'s a useful amount of space left after ECC and bad block management).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Thus, my preliminary suggestion would be to add a NAND sub-system to JFFS2. This subsystem would use the same journaling file system core. Fixing the size of journaling nodes to \"pages\" of 512 bytes quite likely simplifies the interfaces, node management and garbage collection.</p>\n<p>Error handling would fit within the NAND subsystem. Since NOR fails too, bad block handling is really required for NOR too. Whether the same management is appropriate for both is TBD. ECC is only required for NAND.</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p><a name=\"_1065327724\" id=\"_1065327724\"></a> <a name=\"_1065291949\" id=\"_1065291949\"><img border=\"0\" height=\"190\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/sv9379380.gif\" width=\"227\" alt=\"image\" /></a></p>\n<p><a name=\"_1065291949\"></a></p>\n<h3><a name=\"_1065291949\">References</a></h3>\n<p><a name=\"_1065291949\">Samsung and Toshiba NAND part data sheets and www. Samsung in particular has useful applications notes and code.</a></p>\n<p><a name=\"_1065291949\">JFFS2 presentation materials. http://sources.redhat.com/jffs2/</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Tue, 14 Nov 2017 11:04:05 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:26239:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"uC41zhHQ3ZueoIf6f67srzrHrPNOK9MxmSenaIBul7XG3Th9KzpEfvmZkCskVnCdQ9kRlxi03Q\">\n    <title>Yaffs (Yaffs1) Development Notes | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"uC41zhHQ3ZueoIf6f67srzrHrPNOK9MxmSenaIBul7XG3Th9KzpEfvmZkCskVnCdQ9kRlxi03Q\">\n    <js-placeholder token=\"uC41zhHQ3ZueoIf6f67srzrHrPNOK9MxmSenaIBul7XG3Th9KzpEfvmZkCskVnCdQ9kRlxi03Q\">\n  </head>\n  <body class=\"fontyourface path-node page-node-type-page navbar-is-fixed-top has-glyphicons\">\n    <a href=\"#main-content\" class=\"visually-hidden focusable skip-link\">\n      Skip to main content\n    </a>\n    <div style=\"background-color: ; color: \" id=\"environment-indicator\">\n  \n    </div>\n\n              <header class=\"navbar navbar-default navbar-fixed-top\" id=\"navbar\" role=\"banner\">\n              <div class=\"container\">\n            <div class=\"navbar-header\">\n          <div class=\"region region-navigation\">\n          <a class=\"logo navbar-btn pull-left\" href=\"/\" title=\"Home\" rel=\"home\">\n      <img src=\"/themes/custom/yaffs/logo.svg\" alt=\"Home\" />\n    </a>\n      \n  </div>\n\n                          <button type=\"button\" class=\"navbar-toggle\" data-toggle=\"collapse\" data-target=\"#navbar-collapse\">\n            <span 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Yaffs (Yaffs1) Development Notes</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/archives/yaffs-development-notes\" typeof=\"schema:WebPage\" class=\"page is-sticky full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"Yaffs (Yaffs1) Development Notes\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p><em>These notes relate to Yaffs1. Yaffs version 2, or Yaffs2, is the current version of Yaffs. While many of the details below remain the same, you can find up to date information split between the How Yaffs Works, Yaffs Tuning and Yaffs Direct documents.</em></p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h2>Build options</h2>\n<p>Yaffs1 can be built as either a kernel module (ie. a Linux file system) or as an application.</p>\n<p>Of course the goal is to build Yaffs as a file system running on top of real NAND flash, but yaffs can be built to run on a RAM emulation layer for in-kernel testing without NAND flash in the system.</p>\n<p>Building as an application allows the yaffs_guts algorithms to be tested/debugged in a more friendly debugging environment. The test harness is in yaffsdev.c</p>\n<h3>Trying it out</h3>\n<p>Yaffs1 can be built to run with either mtd or RAM emulation, or both. The file system that interfaces to mtd is called <strong>yaffs</strong>, the file system that uses internal ram is called <strong>yaffsram</strong>. Yaffs1 simultaneously supports both if they are enabled.</p>\n<ol>\n<li>\n<p>Hack the Makefile and change the KERNELDIR define to your kernel directory.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>If you don\'t have mtd support in your kernel, then you might need to turn off USE_MTD otherwise the Yaffs module might not load.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Type <strong>make clean; make</strong> to build yaffs</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Load Yaffs as a module by typing <strong>/sbin/insmod yaffs.o</strong> (ya gotta be root!).</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Create a mount point eg. <strong>mkdir /mnt/y</strong></p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>To mount the RAM emulation version of yaffs, <strong>mount -t yaffsram none /mnt/y</strong></p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Alternatively, to mount the mtd version of yaffs, <strong>mount -t yaffs /dev/mtd0 /mnt/y</strong></p>\n </li>\n</ol>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>Yaffs1 Data structures</h3>\n<p>All data types are defined in yaffs_guts.h</p>\n<p>Yaffs1 uses the following major objects:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_Object: A yaffs_Object can be a file, directory, symlink or hardlink. The yaffs_Objects \"know\" about their corresponding yaffs_ObjectHeader in NAND and the data for that object. yaffs_Objects also bind together the directory structure as follows:</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>parent: pointer to the yaffs_Object that is a parent of this yaffs_Object in the directory structure.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>siblings: this field is used to link together a list of all the yaffs_Objects in the same directory.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>children: if the object is a directory, then children holds the head of the list of objects in the directory.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_Tnode: yaffs_Tnodes form a tree structure that speeds up the search for data chunks in a file. As the file grows in size, the levels increase. The Tnodes are a constant size (32 bytes). Level 0 (ie the lowest level) comprise 16 2-byte entries giving an index used to search for the chunkId. Tnodes at other levels comprise 8 4-byte pointer entries to other tnodes lower in the tree.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_Device: this holds the device context and is in some ways analogous to the VFS superblock. It stores the data used to access the mtd as well as function pointers to access the NAND data.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>The Tnodes and Objects are allocated in groups to reduce memory allocation/freeing overheads. Freed up tnodes and objects are kept in a free list and re-used.</p>\n<h3>yaffs_Object</h3>\n<p>struct yaffs_ObjectStruct</p>\n<p>{</p>\n<p>__u8 fake:1; // A fake object has no presence on NAND.</p>\n<p>__u8 renameAllowed:1; // Are we allowed to rename it?</p>\n<p>__u8 unlinkAllowed:1; // Are we allowed to unlink it?</p>\n<p>__u8 dirty:1; // the object needs to be written to flash</p>\n<p>__u8 valid:1; // When the file system is being loaded up, this</p>\n<p>// object might be created before the data</p>\n<p>// is available (ie. file data records appear before the header).</p>\n<p>__u8 serial; // serial number of chunk in NAND. Store here so we don\'t have to</p>\n<p>// read back the old one to update.</p>\n<p>__u16 sum; // sum of the name to speed searching</p>\n<p>struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *myDev; // The device I\'m on</p>\n<p>struct list_head hashLink; // list of objects in this hash bucket</p>\n<p>struct list_head hardLinks; // all the equivalent hard linked objects</p>\n<p>// live on this list</p>\n<p>// directory structure stuff</p>\n<p>struct yaffs_ObjectStruct *parent; //my parent directory</p>\n<p>struct list_head siblings; // siblings in a directory</p>\n<p>// also used for linking up the free list</p>\n<p>// Where\'s my data in NAND?</p>\n<p>int chunkId; // where it lives</p>\n<p>__u32 objectId; // the object id value</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mode; // protection</p>\n<p>__u32 st_uid; // user ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_gid; // group ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_atime; // time of last access</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mtime; // time of last modification</p>\n<p>__u32 st_ctime; // time of last change</p>\n<p>yaffs_ObjectType variantType;</p>\n<p>yaffs_ObjectVariant variant;</p>\n<p>};</p>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>Obvious stuff skipped....</p>\n<p>fake, renameAllowed, unlinkAllowed are special flags for handling \"fake\" objects which live in the file system but do not live on NAND. Currently there are only two such objects: the root object and the lost+found directory. None of these may be renamed or unlinked.</p>\n<p>serial, sum: see yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n<p>dirty indicates that the object\'s contents has changed and a new yaffs_ObjectHeader must be written to flash.</p>\n<p>valid indicates that the object has been loaded up. This is only used during scanning (yaffs_Scan()) since we can know of an object\'s existance - and thus need to create the object header - before we encounter the associated yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n<p>hashlink is a list of Objects in the same hash bucket.</p>\n<p>The four variants hold extra info:</p>\n<p>Files hold the file size and the top level and pointer to the tnode tree for the file.</p>\n<p>Directories hold a list of children objects.</p>\n<p>Symlinks hold a pointer to the alias string. This is probably inefficient, but that probably does not matter since we don\'t expect to see many of these.</p>\n<p>Hardlinks hold information to identify the equivalent object.</p>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>File structure (tnodes)</h3>\n<p>File structures are done with a tiered indexing structure</p>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p><img alt=\"\" height=\"294\" src=\"http://www.aleph1.co.uk/yaffs/sv9349341.gif\" width=\"491\" /><br />\n<br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>The file structure is maintained by a tree structure. Depending where it is in the tree, each tree node (<strong><em>tnode</em></strong>) (the blue/things) holds either:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>.... if it is at the lowest level, then 16 __u16s which identify the page.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>.... if it is at a higher level (ie an internal tnode), then 8 pointers to lowest-level tnodes.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>When the file starts out, it is assigned only one low-level tnode. When the file expands past what a single tnode can hold, then it is assigned a second tnode and an internal node is added to point to the two tnodes. As the file grows, more low-level tnodes and high level tnodes are added.</p>\n<p>Traversing the tnode tree to find a particular page in a file is quite simple: each internal tnode is selected from by using 3 bits of the page offset in the file. The level 0 page resolves 4 bits.</p>\n<p>For example, finding page 0x235 (ie. the one starting at file position 0x46800 would proceed as follows:</p>\n<p>0x235 is 0000001000110101, partitioned as follows. 000.000.100.011.0101</p>\n<p>Level</p>\n<p>Bits</p>\n<p>Selected value</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>3 or more if they exist</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&gt;= 10</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Zero</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>2</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>9 to 7</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>100 binary = 4</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>1</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>6 to 4</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>011 binary = 3</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>0</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>3 to 0</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0101 binary = 5</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p><br />\nFree tnodes are stored in a list. When the list is exhausted, more are allocated.</p>\n<p>Each tnode takes 32 bytes. Each file needs at least one level 0 tnode. How many do we need? A full 16MB file system needs at least 16MB/512/16 = 2000 level zero tnodes. More for internal tnodes. More for files smaller than optimal.</p>\n<p>The tree grows as required. When the file is resized to a smaller size then it is pruned.</p>\n<h3>NAND data</h3>\n<p>Data is stored on NAND in \"chunks\". Currently each chunk is the same size as a NAND flash page (ie. 512 bytes + 16 byte spare). In the future we might decide to allow for different chunk sizes. Chunks can hold either:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>A yaffs_ObjectHeader. This is the way a yaffs_Object gets stored on NAND.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>A chunk of file data.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>The 16 byte spare area contains:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>8 bytes of tags,</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>6 bytes of ECC data</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>1 byte block status (used to identify damaged blocks)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>1 byte data status (currently unused).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>The tags are made up as follows:</p>\n<p>typedef struct</p>\n<p>{</p>\n<p>unsigned chunkId:20; //chunk number in file</p>\n<p>unsigned serialNumber:2; //serial number for chunk</p>\n<p>unsigned byteCount:10; //number of bytes of data used in this chunk</p>\n<p>unsigned objectId:18; //the object id that this chunk belongs to.</p>\n<p>unsigned ecc:12; //ECC on tags</p>\n<p>unsigned unusedStuff:2; //unused</p>\n<p>} yaffs_Tags;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>A chunkId of zero indicates that this chunk holds a yaffs_ObjectHeader. A non zero value indicates that this is a data chunk and the position of the chunk in the file (ie. the first chunk - at offset 0 - has chunkId 1). See yaffs_guts.c:yaffs_Scan () to see how this is done.</p>\n<p>When a chunk is repalced (eg. file details changed or a part of a file was overwritten), the new chunk is written before the old chunk is deleted. This means that we don\'t lose data if there is a power loss after the new chunk is created but before the old one is discarded, but it does mean that we can encounter the situation where we find both the old and the new chunks in flash. The serialNumber is incremented each time the chunk is written. 2 bits is sufficient to resolve any ambiguity.</p>\n<p>bytecount applies only to data chunks and tells how many of the data bytes are valid.</p>\n<p>objectId says which object this chunk belongs to.</p>\n<p>ecc is used to perform error correction on the tags. Another ecc field is used to error correct the data.</p>\n<h3>yaffs_ObjectHeader</h3>\n<p>typedef struct</p>\n<p>{</p>\n<p>yaffs_ObjectType type;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// Apply to everything</p>\n<p>int parentObjectId;</p>\n<p>__u16 sum; // checksum of name</p>\n<p>char name[YAFFS_MAX_NAME_LENGTH + 1];</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// Thes following apply to directories, files, symlinks - not hard links</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mode; // protection</p>\n<p>__u32 st_uid; // user ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_gid; // group ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_atime; // time of last access</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mtime; // time of last modification</p>\n<p>__u32 st_ctime; // time of last change</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// File size applies to files only</p>\n<p>int fileSize;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// Equivalent object id applies to hard links only.</p>\n<p>int equivalentObjectId;</p>\n<p>// alias only applies to symlinks</p>\n<p>char alias[YAFFS_MAX_ALIAS_LENGTH + 1];</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>} yaffs_ObjectHeader;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>A yaffs_ObjectHeader is stored in NAND for every yaffs_Object.</p>\n<p>type holds the type of yaffs_Object (file,directory,hardlink or symlink).</p>\n<p>parentObject is the objectId of this object\'s parent. name holds the object\'s name. Together these form the directory structure of the file system. Also worth mention is sum. This is a \"checksum\" on the name which speeds directory searching (ie. when searching the directory we only compare the name for those entries where sum matches).</p>\n<p>Obvious stuff skipped....</p>\n<p>equivalentObjectId is used by hardlinks. A hardlink to an object uses this field to specify the object that this links to. This way of doing things is a bit different than the normal Linux way of doing things (ie. keeping the links distinct from the inode) but is simpler and uses less space except for a few corner cases with hardlinks.</p>\n<p>alias is used by symlinks to hold the symlink alias string. This limits the size of the symlink alias. In future we should expand Yaffs1 to use data chunks to store aliases too long to fit into the yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n<h3>NAND Interface</h3>\n<p>All NAND access is performed via four functions pointed to by yaffs_Device. At the moment a chunk is a page.</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>int WriteChunkToNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int chunkInNAND, const __u8 *data, yaffs_Spare *spare)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>int ReadChunkFromNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int chunkInNAND, __u8 *data, yaffs_Spare *spare);</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>int EraseBlockInNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int blockInNAND);</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>int InitialiseNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev);</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>In the Readxxx and Writexxx functions, the data and/or spare pointers may be NULL in which case these data transfers are ignored.</p>\n<p>A quick note about NAND:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>NAND is not random access, but page oriented. Thus, we do all reads &amp; writes in pages.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Each NAND page holds 512 bytes of data and 16 \"spare\" bytes. Yaffs structures the spare area with tags used to identify what is stored in the data area. There are 32 such pages to a block.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>NAND writes will only change 1 bits to 0. eg. if a byte holds 10110011 and you write 11011010 to it you will get the logical and of the two values: 10010010. The only way to get 1s again is to erase the entire block.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>You may only write to a page a few times before erasing the entire block. Yaffs lives within these limitations. Each page only gets written to twice (once when written and once when discarded).</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>ECC is normally used with NAND to correct for single bit errors. Yaffs1 applies the ECC itself, so the MTD should not do this.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>The current mtd interfaces are not particularly well suited to Yaffs1 and we will address the issue with the mtd group. (The mtd interface does not support page-oriented read/write which Yaffs1 would prefer).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<h3>mkyaffs</h3>\n<p>mkyaffs is the tool to format a NAND mtd to be used for Yaffs1. This is quite simple, just erase all the undamaged blocks. Yaffs1 treats erased blocks as free (empty) space.</p>\n<h2>Expected performance</h2>\n<p>The following numbers should give an indication of the performance we should expect from Yaffs1.</p>\n<p>As an example, I\'ll use the following numbers. Since the hardware is capable of 50ns read/write, these numbers allow for some other ovberheads. Clearly though, the performance can be degraded in various ways.</p>\n<p>Seek</p>\n<p>10uS/page</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>100nS/byte</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Write</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>100nS/byte</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Program</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>200uS/page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Erase</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2mS/block</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>From this we can derive some higher-level numbers:</p>\n<p>Operation</p>\n<p>Time</p>\n<p>Calculation</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read spare</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>12uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 16 * read</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>63 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 528 * read</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Write page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>326 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 528 * write + program + read page (for verification)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Discard page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>212 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 16 * write + program</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Overwrite page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>538 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>write page + discard page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Erase overhead per page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>63uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>erase/32</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>From this we can infer the following flash access times:</p>\n<p>Operation</p>\n<p>Time</p>\n<p>Calculation</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read 1MB file</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.13s (about 7.5 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * read page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Write 1MB (clean system)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.53s (about 1.8 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * write page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Overwrite 1MB file (no gc)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>1.08s (about 0.9MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * overwrite page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Overwrite 1MB with 50% gc</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2.4s (about 0.4 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * overwrite page + 2000 * page copy (== overwrite page) + 4000 * erase overhead</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Delete 1MB file</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.43s (about 2.2 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * discard page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Delete 1MB file with 50% gc</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.49s (about 2.0MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * discard page + 1000 * erase overhead</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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\n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Yaffs History</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" 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They wanted something reliable and one of their fundamental requirements was fast boot time. We looked at adding NAND support to the existing flash filesystems, JFFS and particularly JFFS2, but it became clear that the boot time and ram consumption (a 128MB NAND would use about 4MB RAM in node tables) were a problem, and adding NAND support wasn\'t trivial either (but has since been done). In the end we decided a different filing system explicitly for NAND was the way to go. The design was greatly simplified by not including compression in the FS - which makes sense as nearly all the large data files TCL used were compressed anyway, and the larger size of NAND devices makes compression less important. A cramfs filesystem can be mounted within Yaffs if you need to compress some of your data.</p>\n<p>The original work was paid for by <a href=\"http://www.toby-churchill.com/\">Toby Churchill Ltd</a>, the project instigators, and <a href=\"http://www.brightstareng.com/\">Brightstar Engineering</a>.</p>\n<p>Here is a collection of notable events and milestones in the history of Yaffs.</p>\n<ul>\n<li>2006.10 Yaffs updated to work properly with Linux 2.6.17+ MTD on 512B and 2K page NAND</li>\n<li>2006.05.08 Checkpointing added - so start-up scanning time enormously reduced</li>\n<li>2004.08.02 Linux kernel 2.6 support checked in.</li>\n<li>2004.02 Yaffs presentation given at FOSDEM on embedded track</li>\n<li><i>2003.06.21</i> Yaffs runs with Linux kernel 2.5.70.</li>\n<li><i>2003.05</i> First two Yaffs/direct licencees.</li>\n<li><i>2003.04</i> Yaffs/direct non-GPL license option created for those who can\'t use the GPL.</li>\n<li><i>2003.03.07</i> ViewCVS installed to make CVS browsing much easier and help those behind CVS-blocking firewalls get access to the code.</li>\n<li><i>2003.01</i> Yaffs Direct ported to pSOS.</li>\n<li><i>2003.01.21</i> \'Yaffs Direct Interface\' checked in - a version of Yaffs designed for integration into lightweight RTOSs and embedded systems.</li>\n<li><i>2003.01.21</i> Yaffs Bootloader example code checked in, so your bootloader can read directly from Yaffs.</li>\n<li><i>2002.11.04</i> <a href=\"/drupal/yaffs/yaffs2.html\">Yaffs2 spec</a> announced for discussion.</li>\n<li><i>2002.11.08</i> WinCE port code checked-in to CVS.</li>\n<li><i>2002.09.23</i> Announced to the world.</li>\n<li><i>2002.09.17</i> Header files relicensed under LGPL to make it easier to add Yaffs support to bootloaders or other non-free software.</li>\n<li><i>2002.09.13</i> Stand-alone system using Yaffs root partition booted.</li>\n<li><i>2002.08</i> WinCE Yaffs port working.</li>\n<li><i>2002.05.20</i> MTD interface tested on hardware emulation and some real hardware.</li>\n<li><i>2002.05.14</i> v0.1 release. MTD interface done and incorporated. This is essentially untested. yaffs.o provides two file systems (one to support internal RAM emulation [called yaffsram] and the other mtd [called yaffs]). Docs improved/updated. mkyaffs filesystem creator written.</li>\n<li><i>2002.04.24</i> Now includes device contexts, (but as there is only one emulation instance this isn\'t any practical use yet), some bugs fixed and disk full handling. Still some VFS problems apparent in sub-directories. Statfs, attributes still to do, symlinks and hardlinks not yet wired to VFS layer.</li>\n<li><i>2002.04.15</i> kernel module that runs as an fs on 2MB internal emulation. The core filing-system seems to work pretty well. Some problems remain in the VFS layer producing various odd effects. Only one instance of the fs supported</li>\n<li><i>2002.04.03</i> Core fs runs on emulation layer (instead of real NAND), create/read/write/delte/resize/reanem files, create directories, scans media on startup, garbage collection.</li>\n</ul>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Sun, 19 Nov 2017 05:09:21 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:8327:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"Gq41G52ROUBP4fZuyuN6uZAYcFtYkTtdYcmuhHur55aIy8Sjxns7DqCw8Kczfm7li_70nUAdAA\">\n    <title>YAFFS embedded structure | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"Gq41G52ROUBP4fZuyuN6uZAYcFtYkTtdYcmuhHur55aIy8Sjxns7DqCw8Kczfm7li_70nUAdAA\">\n    <js-placeholder 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class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span>YAFFS embedded structure</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/yaffs-embedded-structure\" class=\"image is-promoted full clearfix\">\n\n  \n    \n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">YAFFS embedded structure</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a 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charset=UTF-8\";}s:13:\"cache-control\";a:1:{i:0;s:8:\"no-cache\";}s:4:\"date\";a:1:{i:0;s:29:\"Tue, 14 Nov 2017 20:05:23 GMT\";}}s:15:\"\0*\0cacheControl\";a:0:{}}s:10:\"\0*\0content\";s:14364:\"<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html  lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" prefix=\"content: http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/  dc: http://purl.org/dc/terms/  foaf: http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/  og: http://ogp.me/ns#  rdfs: http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#  schema: http://schema.org/  sioc: http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#  sioct: http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#  skos: http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#  xsd: http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema# \">\n  <head>\n    <head-placeholder token=\"7N0f9XNqgN_CsP3Zp4wGNL7Cw8tmVtdH3sIVEX3rvwOSFhdqFoAJHH_qL1KZ780KubqI6u-68Q\">\n    <title>Licences - more background and detail | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <css-placeholder token=\"7N0f9XNqgN_CsP3Zp4wGNL7Cw8tmVtdH3sIVEX3rvwOSFhdqFoAJHH_qL1KZ780KubqI6u-68Q\">\n    <js-placeholder 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sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\Core\\Render\\Element\\StatusMessages::renderMessages\" arguments=\"0\" token=\"_HAdUpwWmet0TOTe2PSiJuMntExoshbm1kh2wQzzzAA\"></drupal-render-placeholder>\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Licences - more background and detail</span>\n</h1>\n\n<drupal-render-placeholder callback=\"Drupal\\block\\BlockViewBuilder::lazyBuilder\" arguments=\"0=yaffs_local_tasks&amp;1=full&amp;2\" token=\"w23j7iE363xxUJCXKAtJQdcjG4ZZoQ4QEIV26-ZdK5w\"></drupal-render-placeholder>  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/licences-more-background-and-detail\" typeof=\"schema:WebPage\" class=\"page full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"Licences - more background and detail\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><h3>What sorts of licence are there?</h3>\n\n<p>There are two; GNU General Public Licence version 2, and Paid licences.<br />\nAnyone can take our Yaffs file system from http://www.yaffs.net  free of charge; you can work and play with and test the code as much as you like, and make sure it suits your purposes. You will be doing so under the well known GNU GPL, described in detail at http://www.gnu.org/licenses/old-licenses/gpl-2.0.html</p>\n\n<h3>That sounds great! Why should I want a paid licence?</h3>\n\n<p>The GPL obliges you to release all associated code of your own that you use with any GPL software to anyone who asks for it.  If you do not wish to release your own code, then you can buy a Licence from Aleph One Ltd which does not have that obligation.</p>\n\n<h3>What sorts of systems use Yaffs?</h3>\n\n<p>There is a wide range including GPS equipment for surveyors, sewing machines, traffic control equipment, Point-of-Sale tills, Set-Top-Boxes, DVD writers, high-end video-filming equipment and so on and on - including Android telephones!  These have provided a very large test-bed for Yaffs, and of course they use it under GPL since Android is an Open Source project.</p>\n\n<h3>Who uses Yaffs now?</h3>\n\n<p>The Yaffs.net Home page shows (at its foot) the logos of some of the users, but the range is much wider than those displayed there.  They tend to have in common a need for great confidence in the robustness of the FS in demanding circumstances like heavy work, accumulated cell-failures, and random power failures.  A number of them have bought more than one Licence at different times because they know it works!</p>\n\n<h3>What are the terms of the paid licences like?</h3>\n\n<p>All Yaffs licences from Aleph One are non-exclusive, worldwide, perpetual, irrevocable and free of any royalty; they are paid for once when an agreement is signed, and they apply only to the one or more products specified at the time of the agreement.</p>\n\n<h3>What do we do next?</h3>\n\n<p>Tell us some more about the product you will use Yaffs in.  We like the Agreement to contain a brief description of the hardware involved and the part number or product name and any internal code name.  If you want us to sign a Non-Disclosure Agreement before you give us these details, send it to us; we are used to signing them.  We can send you a standard form if you do not have one.<br />\nThen we will send a draft Agreement and price to you, and negotiate until we are both satisfied.  Next we each sign and exchange copies of the Agreement and you pay us.</p>\n\n<h3>How does that help us?</h3>\n\n<p>After you pay for a Licence you get a tarball of files to put in your product which make clear in the file headers that you are using Yaffs under a licence from Aleph One Ltd.  That makes a paid licence different from a GNU General Public Licence.  We can do that because Aleph One Ltd owns Yaffs completely.<br />\nIts other virtues are that it handles different page sizes and large numbers of files, and it is economical on other resources such as RAM.  Like everyone else, Licence Holders have access to the continuing improvements which are being made in Yaffs.</p>\n\n<h3>What about the OS?</h3>\n\n<p>Yaffs is agnostic about the OS it is used with.  While many users combine it with Linux, it has been used with 32-bit and 64-bit OSs and with no OS at all.  Cases such as VxWorks and WinCE are a bit more complex.  We have developed a wrapper to make it easier to use Yaffs with WinCE.  We have another wrapper to make it easy to use VxWorks, using only Aleph One code (and none from WindRiver).  If you have a paid Licence for Yaffs then this wrapper costs GBP3000.<br />\nThe relationship between the OS and the rest of Yaffs is illustrated in the diagram on the Home Page.  At the heart of Yaffs is the Yaffs Direct Interface, which is a well-documented sub-set of Yaffs.  Click on it in the diagram for more information.</p>\n\n<h3>How does this relate to the GPL?</h3>\n\n<p>The point of GNU General Public Licence v2 is to share work to improve Open Source software for the common good.  A huge amount of development takes place quietly and out of the public eye, and it is released into the common pool of software so others can both benefit from it and contribute to it.<br />\nOpen Source software is transparent to all who use it, and its development therefore requires sharing your contributions with anyone else who wants them.  The GPL was devised to make this possible.  It also makes perfectly clear that the open source code is supplied AS IS and without any warranty. This shields developers and contributors from litigators who want to blame them for a fault.<br />\nOne user of Yaffs makes seismic monitoring equipment capable of detecting underground nuclear explosions; they require Open Source software.</p>\n\n<h3>How does the LGPL bear on all of this?</h3>\n\n<p>Because Bootloaders are often proprietary we provide with Yaffs a few kBytes of bootloader code which is licensed under LGPL, the GNU Lesser Public Licence, rather than under GPL.  This avoids the risk of what proprietary code owners often describe as contamination of their code by code useful to Yaffs.<br />\nThe LGPL is shown at  http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.html  The tarball with modified headers you get from us will have your name only in the Yaffs file headers and not in the headers of tools such as the bootloader.  This practice is common in the Open Source world.</p>\n\n<h3>How much does a licence from Aleph One cost?</h3>\n\n<p>The price depends a bit on the sort of market you are working in; a firm making industrial control equipment or office copiers pays a base price, but a mobile phone maker pays more.  The base price is GBP10k. Note that is not US$ but GB Pounds Sterling.</p>\n\n<p><br />\nNovember 2017</p>\n\n<p><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />\n </p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" 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href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div 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