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The code is hard-wired to support the NAND devices on a SPIA board. The ECC code supports 256 byte sectors.</p>\n<p>There are 3 files:</p>\n<p>nand.c: nand support algorithms. Unfortunately there is no hardware abstraction (ie. the hardware is assumed to be the SPIA board). but this is relatively easy to add.</p>\n<p>spia.c: this initialises the spia hardware to set up the addresses for the hardware access.</p>\n<p>ecc.c: ECC for 256 byte pages.</p>\n<p>What needs to be done at this level:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Hardware abstraction of nand.c. This allows this code to be used with different hardware configurations.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>The larger memory sizes use 512 byte pages. The memory sizes supported by 256-byte pages are obsolete. 512-byte pages are treated as two sub-pages of 256 bytes each. The Samsung code is calculation based (ie. maybe slow). The Toshiba code is table based and probably faster. Check if they are equivalent.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Write a software emulation for a NAND device. The purpose of the software emulator is:</p>\n<ul>\n <li>\n <p>Allow debugging without the need for hardware.</p>\n  </li>\n <li>\n <p>NAND file systems need to be fault tolerant. The hardware can\'t be forced to fail to test out bad block detection/handling etc. A software emulator can be forced to fail.</p>\n  </li>\n</ul>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>Overall flash system diagram<img alt=\"\" height=\"402\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/sv16516600.gif\" width=\"399\" /></h3>\n<p>A diagrammatic representation of support for SmartMedia, NAND and NOR as well as both FAT16 and JFFS2 might look like the above.</p>\n<p>The NAND flash sub-system uses common layers for:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>hardware access</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>ECC, bad block handling and low-level formatting. (based on Smart Media low-level specs). By using the same low level formatting and ECC as much as possible we gain some benefit in testing, reuse etc. The low-level formatting would differ in that fields used to store the LBA and reserved fields might be used for something else (??journaling tags??)</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<h3>Concerns with using JFFS2 on NAND</h3>\n<p>There are some reasons why JFFS and NAND might not work together that well.</p>\n<p>Two particular concerns re booting</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>NAND devices are typically much larger than NOR (eg. 128MB is currently a large NAND chip while 16MB would be considered a large NOR chip), thus the data structures associated with flash management are likely to be much larger. Also, JFFS2 scans the media on boot to build data structures representing the nodes in the system. This increases the boot time.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>NAND is not random access but must be read serially. This means that the scanning routine can\'t just merrily skip through the flash, instead the whole flash must be read and ECC\'d first. This slows scanning and hence booting.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Thus booting a 128MB NAND-based JFFS2 is likely to look something like this:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Read and ECC every last byte on the device even if we only need a few bytes per page for journaling headers and digest the contents. At say 5MB/second this will take ~25 seconds.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Each node requires a 16-byte structure (struct jffs2_raw_node_ref). If nodes were 512-bytes then that\'s 4MB of RAM!</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>These are probably unacceptable for the product being used. We therefore need to run something better than this.</p>\n<p>Two approaches spring to mind:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Just run FAT16. ie. Just treat all NAND as SmartMedia. Benefits: one code base. Down-side: reliability.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>I\'m reluctant to store critical files in a FAT16 file system because these can be so unreliable. I\'m convinced that a journaling file system is superior. Maybe what we need is a light weight journaling file system (using common code with JFFS) modified in such a way as sidestep some of the nasty issues raised above.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>What I\'m working towards</h3>\n<p>Right now I\'m investigating the idea of trying to do something more appropriate. My current avenue of exploration is to use a journaling approach as follows:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>The journaling records are stored in fixed-size 512-byte pages.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>The journaling tags are stored in the 16-byte-per-page \"management space\", semi-consistent with SmartMedia, using the 8 bytes of reserved space and LBA space to store journaling tags. ie something like:</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>20 bits of page id within inode</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>20 bits of inode id</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>9 bits length (bytes used in this page).</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>7 bits flags etc.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>8 bits of hamming code on this area.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Each page id identifies where the page fits into the file. When a page is replaced (ie file data is overwritten) a new page with the same page id is written and the old one is wiped out. During garbage collection, the pages containing valid data are copied and the wiped out data is discarded.</p>\n<p>The benefits of this approach are:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>NAND-friendly since it works within the write limitations of NAND.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Less stuff to read to reconstruct file structures (only read management data).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Down sides:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>No compression. But is that an issue considering the target data is already compressed and NAND is far less precious than NOR (thanks to higher densities and lower price).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>Still need to see if a new data structure is going to reduce the overhead of jffs2_raw_node_ref somewhat.</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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content=\"Flash File System\" />\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Notes on how to use Yaffs (Yaffs1) and some details of the internal structures - useful if you want to mess with the code. 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Yaffs version 2, or Yaffs2, is the current version of Yaffs. While many of the details below remain the same, you can find up to date information split between the How Yaffs Works, Yaffs Tuning and Yaffs Direct documents.</em></p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<h2>Build options</h2>\n<p>Yaffs1 can be built as either a kernel module (ie. a Linux file system) or as an application.</p>\n<p>Of course the goal is to build Yaffs as a file system running on top of real NAND flash, but yaffs can be built to run on a RAM emulation layer for in-kernel testing without NAND flash in the system.</p>\n<p>Building as an application allows the yaffs_guts algorithms to be tested/debugged in a more friendly debugging environment. The test harness is in yaffsdev.c</p>\n<h3>Trying it out</h3>\n<p>Yaffs1 can be built to run with either mtd or RAM emulation, or both. The file system that interfaces to mtd is called <strong>yaffs</strong>, the file system that uses internal ram is called <strong>yaffsram</strong>. Yaffs1 simultaneously supports both if they are enabled.</p>\n<ol>\n<li>\n<p>Hack the Makefile and change the KERNELDIR define to your kernel directory.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>If you don\'t have mtd support in your kernel, then you might need to turn off USE_MTD otherwise the Yaffs module might not load.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Type <strong>make clean; make</strong> to build yaffs</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Load Yaffs as a module by typing <strong>/sbin/insmod yaffs.o</strong> (ya gotta be root!).</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Create a mount point eg. <strong>mkdir /mnt/y</strong></p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>To mount the RAM emulation version of yaffs, <strong>mount -t yaffsram none /mnt/y</strong></p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Alternatively, to mount the mtd version of yaffs, <strong>mount -t yaffs /dev/mtd0 /mnt/y</strong></p>\n </li>\n</ol>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>Yaffs1 Data structures</h3>\n<p>All data types are defined in yaffs_guts.h</p>\n<p>Yaffs1 uses the following major objects:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_Object: A yaffs_Object can be a file, directory, symlink or hardlink. The yaffs_Objects \"know\" about their corresponding yaffs_ObjectHeader in NAND and the data for that object. yaffs_Objects also bind together the directory structure as follows:</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>parent: pointer to the yaffs_Object that is a parent of this yaffs_Object in the directory structure.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>siblings: this field is used to link together a list of all the yaffs_Objects in the same directory.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>children: if the object is a directory, then children holds the head of the list of objects in the directory.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_Tnode: yaffs_Tnodes form a tree structure that speeds up the search for data chunks in a file. As the file grows in size, the levels increase. The Tnodes are a constant size (32 bytes). Level 0 (ie the lowest level) comprise 16 2-byte entries giving an index used to search for the chunkId. Tnodes at other levels comprise 8 4-byte pointer entries to other tnodes lower in the tree.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_Device: this holds the device context and is in some ways analogous to the VFS superblock. It stores the data used to access the mtd as well as function pointers to access the NAND data.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>The Tnodes and Objects are allocated in groups to reduce memory allocation/freeing overheads. Freed up tnodes and objects are kept in a free list and re-used.</p>\n<h3>yaffs_Object</h3>\n<p>struct yaffs_ObjectStruct</p>\n<p>{</p>\n<p>__u8 fake:1; // A fake object has no presence on NAND.</p>\n<p>__u8 renameAllowed:1; // Are we allowed to rename it?</p>\n<p>__u8 unlinkAllowed:1; // Are we allowed to unlink it?</p>\n<p>__u8 dirty:1; // the object needs to be written to flash</p>\n<p>__u8 valid:1; // When the file system is being loaded up, this</p>\n<p>// object might be created before the data</p>\n<p>// is available (ie. file data records appear before the header).</p>\n<p>__u8 serial; // serial number of chunk in NAND. Store here so we don\'t have to</p>\n<p>// read back the old one to update.</p>\n<p>__u16 sum; // sum of the name to speed searching</p>\n<p>struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *myDev; // The device I\'m on</p>\n<p>struct list_head hashLink; // list of objects in this hash bucket</p>\n<p>struct list_head hardLinks; // all the equivalent hard linked objects</p>\n<p>// live on this list</p>\n<p>// directory structure stuff</p>\n<p>struct yaffs_ObjectStruct *parent; //my parent directory</p>\n<p>struct list_head siblings; // siblings in a directory</p>\n<p>// also used for linking up the free list</p>\n<p>// Where\'s my data in NAND?</p>\n<p>int chunkId; // where it lives</p>\n<p>__u32 objectId; // the object id value</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mode; // protection</p>\n<p>__u32 st_uid; // user ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_gid; // group ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_atime; // time of last access</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mtime; // time of last modification</p>\n<p>__u32 st_ctime; // time of last change</p>\n<p>yaffs_ObjectType variantType;</p>\n<p>yaffs_ObjectVariant variant;</p>\n<p>};</p>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>Obvious stuff skipped....</p>\n<p>fake, renameAllowed, unlinkAllowed are special flags for handling \"fake\" objects which live in the file system but do not live on NAND. Currently there are only two such objects: the root object and the lost+found directory. None of these may be renamed or unlinked.</p>\n<p>serial, sum: see yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n<p>dirty indicates that the object\'s contents has changed and a new yaffs_ObjectHeader must be written to flash.</p>\n<p>valid indicates that the object has been loaded up. This is only used during scanning (yaffs_Scan()) since we can know of an object\'s existance - and thus need to create the object header - before we encounter the associated yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n<p>hashlink is a list of Objects in the same hash bucket.</p>\n<p>The four variants hold extra info:</p>\n<p>Files hold the file size and the top level and pointer to the tnode tree for the file.</p>\n<p>Directories hold a list of children objects.</p>\n<p>Symlinks hold a pointer to the alias string. This is probably inefficient, but that probably does not matter since we don\'t expect to see many of these.</p>\n<p>Hardlinks hold information to identify the equivalent object.</p>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<h3>File structure (tnodes)</h3>\n<p>File structures are done with a tiered indexing structure</p>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p><img alt=\"\" height=\"294\" src=\"http://www.aleph1.co.uk/yaffs/sv9349341.gif\" width=\"491\" /><br />\n<br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>The file structure is maintained by a tree structure. Depending where it is in the tree, each tree node (<strong><em>tnode</em></strong>) (the blue/things) holds either:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>.... if it is at the lowest level, then 16 __u16s which identify the page.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>.... if it is at a higher level (ie an internal tnode), then 8 pointers to lowest-level tnodes.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>When the file starts out, it is assigned only one low-level tnode. When the file expands past what a single tnode can hold, then it is assigned a second tnode and an internal node is added to point to the two tnodes. As the file grows, more low-level tnodes and high level tnodes are added.</p>\n<p>Traversing the tnode tree to find a particular page in a file is quite simple: each internal tnode is selected from by using 3 bits of the page offset in the file. The level 0 page resolves 4 bits.</p>\n<p>For example, finding page 0x235 (ie. the one starting at file position 0x46800 would proceed as follows:</p>\n<p>0x235 is 0000001000110101, partitioned as follows. 000.000.100.011.0101</p>\n<p>Level</p>\n<p>Bits</p>\n<p>Selected value</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>3 or more if they exist</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>&gt;= 10</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>Zero</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>2</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>9 to 7</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>100 binary = 4</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>1</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>6 to 4</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>011 binary = 3</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>0</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>3 to 0</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0101 binary = 5</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p><br />\nFree tnodes are stored in a list. When the list is exhausted, more are allocated.</p>\n<p>Each tnode takes 32 bytes. Each file needs at least one level 0 tnode. How many do we need? A full 16MB file system needs at least 16MB/512/16 = 2000 level zero tnodes. More for internal tnodes. More for files smaller than optimal.</p>\n<p>The tree grows as required. When the file is resized to a smaller size then it is pruned.</p>\n<h3>NAND data</h3>\n<p>Data is stored on NAND in \"chunks\". Currently each chunk is the same size as a NAND flash page (ie. 512 bytes + 16 byte spare). In the future we might decide to allow for different chunk sizes. Chunks can hold either:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>A yaffs_ObjectHeader. This is the way a yaffs_Object gets stored on NAND.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>A chunk of file data.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>The 16 byte spare area contains:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>8 bytes of tags,</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>6 bytes of ECC data</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>1 byte block status (used to identify damaged blocks)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>1 byte data status (currently unused).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>The tags are made up as follows:</p>\n<p>typedef struct</p>\n<p>{</p>\n<p>unsigned chunkId:20; //chunk number in file</p>\n<p>unsigned serialNumber:2; //serial number for chunk</p>\n<p>unsigned byteCount:10; //number of bytes of data used in this chunk</p>\n<p>unsigned objectId:18; //the object id that this chunk belongs to.</p>\n<p>unsigned ecc:12; //ECC on tags</p>\n<p>unsigned unusedStuff:2; //unused</p>\n<p>} yaffs_Tags;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>A chunkId of zero indicates that this chunk holds a yaffs_ObjectHeader. A non zero value indicates that this is a data chunk and the position of the chunk in the file (ie. the first chunk - at offset 0 - has chunkId 1). See yaffs_guts.c:yaffs_Scan () to see how this is done.</p>\n<p>When a chunk is repalced (eg. file details changed or a part of a file was overwritten), the new chunk is written before the old chunk is deleted. This means that we don\'t lose data if there is a power loss after the new chunk is created but before the old one is discarded, but it does mean that we can encounter the situation where we find both the old and the new chunks in flash. The serialNumber is incremented each time the chunk is written. 2 bits is sufficient to resolve any ambiguity.</p>\n<p>bytecount applies only to data chunks and tells how many of the data bytes are valid.</p>\n<p>objectId says which object this chunk belongs to.</p>\n<p>ecc is used to perform error correction on the tags. Another ecc field is used to error correct the data.</p>\n<h3>yaffs_ObjectHeader</h3>\n<p>typedef struct</p>\n<p>{</p>\n<p>yaffs_ObjectType type;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// Apply to everything</p>\n<p>int parentObjectId;</p>\n<p>__u16 sum; // checksum of name</p>\n<p>char name[YAFFS_MAX_NAME_LENGTH + 1];</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// Thes following apply to directories, files, symlinks - not hard links</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mode; // protection</p>\n<p>__u32 st_uid; // user ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_gid; // group ID of owner</p>\n<p>__u32 st_atime; // time of last access</p>\n<p>__u32 st_mtime; // time of last modification</p>\n<p>__u32 st_ctime; // time of last change</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// File size applies to files only</p>\n<p>int fileSize;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>// Equivalent object id applies to hard links only.</p>\n<p>int equivalentObjectId;</p>\n<p>// alias only applies to symlinks</p>\n<p>char alias[YAFFS_MAX_ALIAS_LENGTH + 1];</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>} yaffs_ObjectHeader;</p>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>A yaffs_ObjectHeader is stored in NAND for every yaffs_Object.</p>\n<p>type holds the type of yaffs_Object (file,directory,hardlink or symlink).</p>\n<p>parentObject is the objectId of this object\'s parent. name holds the object\'s name. Together these form the directory structure of the file system. Also worth mention is sum. This is a \"checksum\" on the name which speeds directory searching (ie. when searching the directory we only compare the name for those entries where sum matches).</p>\n<p>Obvious stuff skipped....</p>\n<p>equivalentObjectId is used by hardlinks. A hardlink to an object uses this field to specify the object that this links to. This way of doing things is a bit different than the normal Linux way of doing things (ie. keeping the links distinct from the inode) but is simpler and uses less space except for a few corner cases with hardlinks.</p>\n<p>alias is used by symlinks to hold the symlink alias string. This limits the size of the symlink alias. In future we should expand Yaffs1 to use data chunks to store aliases too long to fit into the yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n<h3>NAND Interface</h3>\n<p>All NAND access is performed via four functions pointed to by yaffs_Device. At the moment a chunk is a page.</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>int WriteChunkToNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int chunkInNAND, const __u8 *data, yaffs_Spare *spare)</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>int ReadChunkFromNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int chunkInNAND, __u8 *data, yaffs_Spare *spare);</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>int EraseBlockInNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int blockInNAND);</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>int InitialiseNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev);</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<p>In the Readxxx and Writexxx functions, the data and/or spare pointers may be NULL in which case these data transfers are ignored.</p>\n<p>A quick note about NAND:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>NAND is not random access, but page oriented. Thus, we do all reads &amp; writes in pages.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Each NAND page holds 512 bytes of data and 16 \"spare\" bytes. Yaffs structures the spare area with tags used to identify what is stored in the data area. There are 32 such pages to a block.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>NAND writes will only change 1 bits to 0. eg. if a byte holds 10110011 and you write 11011010 to it you will get the logical and of the two values: 10010010. The only way to get 1s again is to erase the entire block.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>You may only write to a page a few times before erasing the entire block. Yaffs lives within these limitations. Each page only gets written to twice (once when written and once when discarded).</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>ECC is normally used with NAND to correct for single bit errors. Yaffs1 applies the ECC itself, so the MTD should not do this.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>The current mtd interfaces are not particularly well suited to Yaffs1 and we will address the issue with the mtd group. (The mtd interface does not support page-oriented read/write which Yaffs1 would prefer).</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\n<h3>mkyaffs</h3>\n<p>mkyaffs is the tool to format a NAND mtd to be used for Yaffs1. This is quite simple, just erase all the undamaged blocks. Yaffs1 treats erased blocks as free (empty) space.</p>\n<h2>Expected performance</h2>\n<p>The following numbers should give an indication of the performance we should expect from Yaffs1.</p>\n<p>As an example, I\'ll use the following numbers. Since the hardware is capable of 50ns read/write, these numbers allow for some other ovberheads. Clearly though, the performance can be degraded in various ways.</p>\n<p>Seek</p>\n<p>10uS/page</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>100nS/byte</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Write</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>100nS/byte</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Program</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>200uS/page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Erase</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2mS/block</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>From this we can derive some higher-level numbers:</p>\n<p>Operation</p>\n<p>Time</p>\n<p>Calculation</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read spare</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>12uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 16 * read</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>63 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 528 * read</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Write page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>326 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 528 * write + program + read page (for verification)</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Discard page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>212 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>seek + 16 * write + program</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Overwrite page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>538 uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>write page + discard page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Erase overhead per page</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>63uS</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>erase/32</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p><br />\n&nbsp;</p>\n<p>From this we can infer the following flash access times:</p>\n<p>Operation</p>\n<p>Time</p>\n<p>Calculation</p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n <tr>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Read 1MB file</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.13s (about 7.5 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * read page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Write 1MB (clean system)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.53s (about 1.8 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * write page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Overwrite 1MB file (no gc)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>1.08s (about 0.9MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * overwrite page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Overwrite 1MB with 50% gc</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2.4s (about 0.4 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * overwrite page + 2000 * page copy (== overwrite page) + 4000 * erase overhead</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Delete 1MB file</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.43s (about 2.2 MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * discard page</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n <tr>\n  <td>\n  <p>Delete 1MB file with 50% gc</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>0.49s (about 2.0MB/s)</p>\n   </td>\n  <td>\n  <p>2000 * discard page + 1000 * erase overhead</p>\n   </td>\n </tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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They wanted something reliable and one of their fundamental requirements was fast boot time. We looked at adding NAND support to the existing flash filesystems, JFFS and particularly JFFS2, but it became clear that the boot time and ram consumption (a 128MB NAND would use about 4MB RAM in node tables) were a problem, and adding NAND support wasn\'t trivial either (but has since been done). In the end we decided a different filing system explicitly for NAND was the way to go. The design was greatly simplified by not including compression in the FS - which makes sense as nearly all the large data files TCL used were compressed anyway, and the larger size of NAND devices makes compression less important. A cramfs filesystem can be mounted within Yaffs if you need to compress some of your data.</p>\n<p>The original work was paid for by <a href=\"http://www.toby-churchill.com/\">Toby Churchill Ltd</a>, the project instigators, and <a href=\"http://www.brightstareng.com/\">Brightstar Engineering</a>.</p>\n<p>Here is a collection of notable events and milestones in the history of Yaffs.</p>\n<ul>\n<li>2006.10 Yaffs updated to work properly with Linux 2.6.17+ MTD on 512B and 2K page NAND</li>\n<li>2006.05.08 Checkpointing added - so start-up scanning time enormously reduced</li>\n<li>2004.08.02 Linux kernel 2.6 support checked in.</li>\n<li>2004.02 Yaffs presentation given at FOSDEM on embedded track</li>\n<li><i>2003.06.21</i> Yaffs runs with Linux kernel 2.5.70.</li>\n<li><i>2003.05</i> First two Yaffs/direct licencees.</li>\n<li><i>2003.04</i> Yaffs/direct non-GPL license option created for those who can\'t use the GPL.</li>\n<li><i>2003.03.07</i> ViewCVS installed to make CVS browsing much easier and help those behind CVS-blocking firewalls get access to the code.</li>\n<li><i>2003.01</i> Yaffs Direct ported to pSOS.</li>\n<li><i>2003.01.21</i> \'Yaffs Direct Interface\' checked in - a version of Yaffs designed for integration into lightweight RTOSs and embedded systems.</li>\n<li><i>2003.01.21</i> Yaffs Bootloader example code checked in, so your bootloader can read directly from Yaffs.</li>\n<li><i>2002.11.04</i> <a href=\"/drupal/yaffs/yaffs2.html\">Yaffs2 spec</a> announced for discussion.</li>\n<li><i>2002.11.08</i> WinCE port code checked-in to CVS.</li>\n<li><i>2002.09.23</i> Announced to the world.</li>\n<li><i>2002.09.17</i> Header files relicensed under LGPL to make it easier to add Yaffs support to bootloaders or other non-free software.</li>\n<li><i>2002.09.13</i> Stand-alone system using Yaffs root partition booted.</li>\n<li><i>2002.08</i> WinCE Yaffs port working.</li>\n<li><i>2002.05.20</i> MTD interface tested on hardware emulation and some real hardware.</li>\n<li><i>2002.05.14</i> v0.1 release. MTD interface done and incorporated. This is essentially untested. yaffs.o provides two file systems (one to support internal RAM emulation [called yaffsram] and the other mtd [called yaffs]). Docs improved/updated. mkyaffs filesystem creator written.</li>\n<li><i>2002.04.24</i> Now includes device contexts, (but as there is only one emulation instance this isn\'t any practical use yet), some bugs fixed and disk full handling. Still some VFS problems apparent in sub-directories. Statfs, attributes still to do, symlinks and hardlinks not yet wired to VFS layer.</li>\n<li><i>2002.04.15</i> kernel module that runs as an fs on 2MB internal emulation. The core filing-system seems to work pretty well. Some problems remain in the VFS layer producing various odd effects. Only one instance of the fs supported</li>\n<li><i>2002.04.03</i> Core fs runs on emulation layer (instead of real NAND), create/read/write/delte/resize/reanem files, create directories, scans media on startup, garbage collection.</li>\n</ul>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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As far as I am aware, YAFFS is the only file system, under any operating system, that has been designed specifically for use with NAND flash. YAFFS is thus designed to work within the constraints of, and exploit the features of, NAND flash to maximise performance. YAFFS uses journaling, error correction and verification techniques tuned to the way NAND typically fails, to enhance robustness. The result is a file system that exploits low-cost NAND chips and is both fast and robust. YAFFS is highly portable and runs under Linux, ucLinux and Windows CE. YAFFS is an open source project.\n<h3>Why NAND flash?</h3>\nEmbedded and mobile systems are increasingly using NAND flash for storage because it has various advantages over other storage technologies. As always though, life is a compromise and those advantages come with some limitations that need to be addressed to provide a robust flash file system. Hard disks are not a viable storage option for many embedded and handheld systems because they are too big, too fragile and use too much power. For some years now, people have been using common-old NOR flash for file system storage. JFFS and JFFS2 do an excellent job of this for Linux. For storage applications NOR flash is not that great because it is not very dense (ie. not much storage per chip), is costly and is slow to write. NAND flash, on the other hand, is low cost, dense and writes fast, but has other limitations. The most common consumer usage of NAND flash is on SmartMedia cards which are just NAND chips bonded to a carrier card. Consumer use of SmartMedia is driving down NAND prices while driving up densities. The standard SmartMedia file system is FAT based and is thus liable to corruptions due to power failures, crashes and other acts of demonic forces. This raises robustness concerns, particularly in embedded systems where a corrupted file system can kill the device. What\'s really needed is a journaling file system that is able to work around the limitations of NAND and exploit it for best performance.\n<h3>History</h3>\nThe lead-up to YAFFS started with an investigation into modifying the JFFS2 flash file system to work with NAND flash (**) for some Aleph One customers. It seemed reasonable that the best way to get a file system for NAND flash would be just \"tweaking\" an existing flash file system. On deeper investigation, it became apparent that designing a new file system specifically for NAND might have some benefits.\n<table border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"1\" style=\"width: 568px; border-color: #000000; border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<col width=\"186\" /><col width=\"187\" /><col width=\"186\" />\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p></p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>NOR (typical, varies a lot)</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>NAND</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Density</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>Up to 32MB chips</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Currently 256MB and growing.</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Cost per MB</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>$1-$2</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>25c</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Access</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>Random</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Page oriented with spare area on each page. Sequential access within a page.</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Programmability</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>Can modify a single bit.</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Very limited re-programming.</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Read speed</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>50-100nS</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>10uS page \"seek\" + 50nS per byte</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Program time</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>5uS per byte</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>200uS per page</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Erasure time</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>1s per 64kB block</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>2ms per 16kB block</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Reliability</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 187px;\">\n <p>Relatively immune to corruption. No bad blocks.</p>\n </td>\n <td style=\"width: 186px;\">\n <p>Needs error correction. Bad blocks marked when shipped.</p>\n </td>\n</tr>\n</table>\nDesigning an effective flash file system is a difficult task and you need to jump through many hoops of fire to get a useful system. Although both are called \"Flash\", NOR and NAND flash have very different properties. Thus, a flash file system that works with NOR incorporates various mechanisms that are not required for NAND, and NAND needs extra mechanisms not required for NOR. For example, garbage collection performance is largely determined by the erasure time. NOR erases very slowly and thus an effective NOR garbage collection strategy is relatively complex and limits the design options. In comparison NAND erases very quickly; thus these limitations don\'t apply. Another major difference is that NAND is shipped with marked bad blocks on the device, while NOR chips are shipped defect free. Thus, one expects to encounter some failures in NAND and should design accordingly. This lead me to believe that it would be worth designing a file system specifically for NAND flash, exploiting the features of NAND to simplify the design and catering to NAND specific limitations directly, rather than trying to \"bend\" NAND to work with an existing file system architecture, or vice versa. The first conceptual design for YAFFS was drawn up in late December 2001. Once the customers bought in to the idea, things progressed rapidly. The first line of code was cut in January 2002. By May 2002 we had the first publicly available CVS code. We now have at least six different companies using or experimenting with YAFFS in embedded or handheld systems. YAFFS is already very stable and is converging rapidly. We expect to see YAFFS-based products shipped before the end of the year.\n<h3>Design approach</h3>\nRather than develop and debug code inside the Linux kernel, I took the approach of developing the file system \"guts\" algorithms - the most complex part -- in a user space program. To achieve this, the code is split into four sections:\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_guts: The file system algorithms. This code is fully portable C.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>yaffs_fs.c: Interface layer to the Linux VFS. Can be replaced with a test harness for user space developing of yaffs_guts.c</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>nand interface: wrapper layer between yaffs_guts and the NAND memory access functions. eg. calls Linux mtd layer or RAM emulation layer.</p>\n </li>\n<li>\n<p>Portability functions: wrapper functions for services such as memory allocation etc.</p>\n </li>\n</ul>\nThis modular design has provided a lot of flexibility for testing and development. A user space program and DDD is a far more rapid development environment than continually changing the Linux kernel. Also, a RAM-based NAND emulation layer provides an excellent way to debug the file system in-kernel without special hardware. A further spin-off has been that YAFFS is portable to other operating systems. For example, a port of YAFFS for Windows CE was readily achieved by writing a new wrapper layer to hook up to the WinCE file system manager and new NAND access layer. yaffs_guts.c remains 100% portable(***). YAFFS is thus likely to be easily portable to other OSs too.\n<h3>Results</h3>\nRemoving surplus constraints has lead to a simpler design that has improved performance and robustness as well and reduced development time. YAFFS reads and writes pretty fast. There is no significant hit due to garbage collection (ie. in most situations garbage collection overheads would not impact usage). It is difficult to give meaningful benchmarks given non-standard hardware. However herewith some results achieved on a StrongARM-based board with 128MB of NAND flash. Write speed is approx 800kB per second and read speed is approx 1.5MB per second. In a weekend stress test I wrote, triple-verified then deleted 25gigabytes of file data without a single bit of file data being corrupted. 25GB exceeds the design lifetime of most embedded or handheld devices.\n<h3>Future</h3>\nAlthough YAFFS already performs well, there is still a lot of room for improvement. Development is continuing to enhance performance and robustness as well as add support software such as utilities, bootloader support and analysis tools. I expect to see ports to other OSs too. Increasing the user base of YAFFS is an important way to get more eyes over the code and test it under a wider set of scenarios. The YAFFS development community is growing well with good involvement from people all over the world. YAFFS is realising all the benefits open source projects hope for and will, we expect, continue to grow.\n<h3>Resources</h3>\nThe YAFFS project home page is <a href=\"http://www.aleph1.co.uk/yaffs/\">http://www.aleph1.co.uk/yaffs/</a> This provides further YAFFS documentation and instructions for GIT access and the YAFFS mailing list.\n<h3>Footnotes:</h3>\n(*)The YAFFS name came from the first concept document proposing yet another flash file system. Some how that name just stuck. (**) NAND support has since been added to JFFS2 by others. The YAFFS, JFFS2 and mtd communities cooperate to provide a rich flexible set of solutions to draw from. As is the nature of open source projects, JFFS2 code was used as a reference for some parts of the YAFFS development, particularly for figuring out the VFS interface. Google for further info on JFFS2 and mtd. (***) Some features were added to the guts to enhance WinCE usage. For example, the string comparison function was made configurable to be either strcmp or scricmp because Windows file names are case insensitive.\n<h3>Bio</h3>\nCharles Manning (aka The Embedded Janitor) lives near Christchurch, New Zealand, and has been developing and mopping up embedded systems for twenty years. His hobbies include fly tying and spinning wool. Charles can be reached at <a href=\"denied:mailto:charles@aleph1.co.uk\">charles@aleph1.co.uk</a>. </div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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cosmetics.<br />\n			Change use of data status byte.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>V0.2</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>28/01/02</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Added observations about inodes, file headers and hard links.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>V0.3</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>26/02/02</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>W:Added some general observations on compatibility, partitions and bootloading.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h2>Scope</h2>\n\n<p>The purpose of this document is to outline a potential NAND-friendly file system for Linux.</p>\n\n<h2>Background</h2>\n\n<p>There are already various flash-file systems (FFSs) or block drivers for flash (on top of which a regular FS runs). There are pros and cons with all of these.</p>\n\n<p>Flash memory has quite a few constraints which will not be addressed here. Various approaches are available to work around these constraints to provide a file system. It is important to recognise that \"flash\" includes both NOR and NAND flash which have different sets of constraints. It is easy to be mislead by the generic term \"flash\" into thinking that approaches appropriate for NOR flash are immediately suitable for NAND flash.</p>\n\n<p>The NAND block drivers (eg. SmartMedia [currently not available for Linux] and DiskOnChip NFTL) typically use FAT16 as the file system. This isn\'t too robust and nor is it that flash-friendly. These block drivers provide a logical to physical mapping layer to emulate rewritable blocks that look like disk sectors. When used with FAT16, these file systems work reasonably well. They have a low memory footprint and scale well. Like all FAT based systems they are prone to corruption (\"lost clusters etc\").</p>\n\n<p>The other approach is to design an entire file system which does not work through a block driver layer and is flash-friendly. This allows more scope to work around issues.</p>\n\n<p>Currently, two Linux file systems that support NOR flash very well are JFFS and its derivative JFFS2. Both of these are based on the principles of journaling (hence the leading J) which significantly increases robustness - a particularly important feature in embedded systems. Unfortunately neither of these file systems scale particularly well in both boot time and RAM usage. Scaling is particularly relevant when one considers that a 16MB NOR array would be considered large while a 128MB NAND is available as a single chip.</p>\n\n<p>JFFS requires a RAM-based jffs_node structure for each journalling node in the flash. Each of these nodes is 48 bytes. JFFS2 makes a significant improvement here by reducing the equivalent structure (jffs2_raw_node_ref) to 16 bytes. Still, at say an average node-size of 512 bytes, a 128MB NAND might need 250000 of these ... 4MB!</p>\n\n<p>Both JFFS and JFFS2 require scanning the flash array at boot time to find the journaling nodes and determine the file structures. Since NAND is large, slow, serially accessed and needs ECC this does not scale well and will take an unacceptably long boot time for the target systems. As a thumb-suck, the scanning of a 128MB NAND array might take approx 25 seconds.</p>\n\n<p>The intentions of the design sketched here are:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>Be NAND-flash friendly.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Robustness through journaling strategies.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Significantly reduce the RAM overheads and boot times associated with JFFSx.</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>This FS is intended primarily for internal NAND rather than removable NAND (SM cards). On removable SM cards Smartmedia compatibility is likely to be important so SM/FAT will normally be used, although of course YAFFS makes a lot of sense if reliability is more important than compatibility.</p>\n\n<h2>Overview</h2>\n\n<p>Here follows a simplified overview of YAFFS.</p>\n\n<p>YAFFS uses a physical flash format similar to SmartMedia. This is done for various reasons:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>Some of the formatting, eg placement of bad block markers is determined by the NAND manufacturers and can\'t be changed.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Potential to reuse code.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>If it ain\'t broke don\'t fix.</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>Some of the fields are obviously different to reflect the different usage. Despite the similarities YAFFS is not actually compatible with SM/FAT. SM cards need to be reformatted to switch from using SM/FAT to YAFFS or vice versa.</p>\n\n<p>File data is stored in fixed size \"chunks\" consistent with the size of a page (ie. 512 bytes). Each page is marked with a file id and chunk number. These tags are stored in the \"spare data\" region of the flash. The chunk number is determined by dividing the file position by the chunk size.</p>\n\n<p>When data in a file is overwritten, the relevant chunks are replaced by writing new pages to flash containing the new data but the same tags. The overwritten data is marked as \"discarded\".</p>\n\n<p>File \"headers\" are stored as a single page, marked so as to be differentiated from data pages.</p>\n\n<p>Pages are also marked with a short (2 bit) serial number that increments each time the page at this position is incremented. The reason for this is that if power loss/crash/other act of demonic forces happens before the replaced page is marked as discarded, it is possible to have two pages with the same tags. The serial number is used to arbitrate.</p>\n\n<p>A block containing only discarded pages (termed a <em>dirty block</em>) is an obvious candidate for garbage collection. Otherwise valid pages can be copied off a block thus rendering the whole block discarded and ready for garbage collection.</p>\n\n<p>In theory you don\'t need to hold the file structure in RAM... you could just scan the whole flash looking for pages when you need them. In practice though you\'d want better file access times than that! The mechanism proposed here is to have a list of __u16 page addresses associated with each file. Since there are 218 pages in a 128MB NAND, a __u16 is insufficient to uniquely identify a page but is does identify a group of 4 pages - a small enough region to search exhaustively. This mechanism is clearly expandable to larger NAND devices - within reason. The RAM overhead with this approach is approx 2 bytes per page - 512kB of RAM for a whole 128MB NAND.</p>\n\n<p>Boot-time scanning to build the file structure lists should require just one pass reading NAND. Since only the the spare data needs to be read, this should be relatively fast ( approx 3 seconds for 128MB). Improvements can be achieved by partitioning the NAND. ie. mount the critical partition first then mount the data partition afterwards.</p>\n\n<p>Various runtime improvements can be achieved by changing the \"chunk size\" to 1024 bytes or more. However this would likely reduce flash efficiency. As always, life is a compromise....</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>Spare area details</h3>\n\n<p>The following table summarizes the layout of the spare area of each page.</p>\n\n<p>Byte #SmartMedia usageYAFFS usage</p>\n\n<table><tr><td>\n			<p>0..511</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Data</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Data. either file data or file header depending on tags</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>512..515</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Reserved</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Tags</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>516</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Data status byte. Not used in SM code from Samsung</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Data status byte. If more than 4 bits are zero, then this page is discarded.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>517</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Block status byte</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Block status byte</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>518..519</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Block address</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Tags</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>520..522</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>ECC on second 256 bytes part of data</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>ECC on second 256 bytes of data</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>523..524</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Block address</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Tags</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>525..527</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>ECC on first 256 bytes part of data</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>ECC on first 256 bytes part of data</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>The block status is a reserved value that shows whether the block is damaged.</p>\n\n<p>The data status tracks whether the page is valid. If less than 4 bits are zero, then the page is valid otherwise it is discarded.</p>\n\n<p>There are 8 bytes (64 bits) for use by YAFFS tags. This is partitioned as follows:</p>\n\n<p>Number of bitsUsage</p>\n\n<table><tr><td>\n			<p>18</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>18-bit file id. ie. Limit of 218 (over 260000) files. File id 0 is not valid and indicates a deleted page. File Id 0x3FFFF i is also not valid.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>2</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2-bit serial number.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>20</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>20-bit page id within file. Limit of 220 pages per file. ie. over 500MB file max size. Page id 0 means the file header for this file.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>10</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>10-bit counter of the number of bytes used in the page.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>12</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>12-bit ECC on tags.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>2</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Unused. Keep as 1.</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p><strong>64</strong></p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p><strong>Total</strong></p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>A bit of explanation on the usage of some of these fields:</p>\n\n<p>file Id is synonymous with inode.</p>\n\n<p>The serial number is incremented each time a page with the same file_id:page_id is rewritten (because of data changes or copy during garbage collection). When a page is replaced, there is a brief period during which there are two pages with the same id. The serial number resolves this. Since there should never be a difference of less than more than one, a two-bit counter is sufficient to determine which is the current page.</p>\n\n<p>When the page is rewritten, the file id, these data status byte and the 12-bit ECC are all written to zero.</p>\n\n<p>The byte counter indicates how many bytes are valid in this page. Since the page would not exist if it contains zero bytes, this field should thus hold 512 for all pages except the last page in the file. The use of counters means that the file length integrity is preserved while the file is open without having to constantly update the file length in the file header. The file header only needs to be refreshed when the file is closed (rather than whenever it is appended to). This field is wide enough to allow expansion to 1024-byte \"chunks\".</p>\n\n<p>File \"headers\" come in two flavours:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>file info ( the mode, ower id, group id, length,...)</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>the hard link(s) that refers to the file.</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>A directory also appears as a file (ie. has an inode and hard link(s)) but has no data.</p>\n\n<p>The 12-bit ECC applies to only the tag data uses a similar algorithm to the 22-bit ECCs used for file system data. They are kept independent.</p>\n\n<h3>RAM data details</h3>\n\n<p>Block management details are reasonably obvious and, I feel, don\'t need to be addressed here apart from stating that there will be a structure to track block status (eg. number of pages in use, failed blocks, and which are candidates for garbage collection etc).</p>\n\n<p>The files need an indexing structure of sorts to locate and track the pages in the file. Some sort of tree structure should work rather well. The look-up needs to be quite efficient in both CPU time and space.</p>\n\n<h3>Page allocation and garbage collection</h3>\n\n<p>Pages are allocated sequentially from the currently selected block. When all the pages in the block are filled, another clean block is selected for allocation. At least two or three clean blocks are reserved for garbage collection purposes. If there are insufficient clean blocks available, then a dirty block ( ie one containing only discarded pages) is erased to free it up as a clean block. If no dirty blocks are available, then the dirtiest block is selected for garbage collection.</p>\n\n<p>Garbage collection is performed by copying the valid data pages into new data pages thus rendering all the pages in this block dirty and freeing it up for erasure. I also like the idea of selecting a block at random some small percentage of the time - thus reducing the chance of wear differences.</p>\n\n<p>Relative to NOR, NAND writes and erases very fast. Therefore garbage collection might be performed on-demand (eg. during a write) without significant degradation in performance. Alternatively garbage collection might be delegated to a kernel tasklet.</p>\n\n<p>Relative to JFFSx, the garbage collection presented here is incredibly simple - thanks mainly to the use of fixed-size pages instead of journaling nodes.</p>\n\n<h3>Flash writing</h3>\n\n<p>As presented here, YAFFS only writes to the page\'s data area once and to the spare area twice (once when new page is written and once when it gets stomped on) before an erasure. This is within the limits of the most restrictive NAND flashes.</p>\n\n<h3>Wear levelling</h3>\n\n<p>No wear levelling is explicitly used here. Instead we rely on two \"strategies\":</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>Reserving some blocks to cater for failure. You need to do this anyway with NAND. The main purpose behind wear levelling is to prevent some blocks getting more wear and failing. Since we expect, and handle, failure this is no longer as important.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>The infrequent random block selection should prevent low-wear blocks getting \"stuck\".</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><h3>Partitioning</h3>\n\n<p>Partitioning is not included in this spec, but could be added if required.</p>\n\n<h3>Bootloading</h3>\n\n<p>Bootloaders cannot just read files direct from NAND due to the high probability of bad blocks. Because YAFFS is quite simple it will be relatively straightforward for bootloaders to read from it (eg reading a kernel).</p>\n\n<h3>Conclusion</h3>\n\n<p>YAFFS is very simple. It is also NAND-friendly, is relatively frugal with resources (especially RAM) and boots quickly. Like JFFSx it has journaling which makes it far more robust than FAT.</p>\n\n<p>While it might seem high-risk to develop YAFFS, it is probably about the same amount of effort as implementing changes to JFFS to get it to work effectively within the constraints of NAND. A resulting JFFSx system would still require significant amounts of RAM and have long boot times.</p>\n\n<p>While YAFFS is indeed a new file system internally, much of the file system glue code (including inode management, link management etc) can likely be stolen from JFFSx.</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>YAFFS Development Notes</p>\n\n<h3>Build options</h3>\n\n<p>Yaffs can be built as either a kernel module (ie. a Linux file system) or as an application.</p>\n\n<p>Of course the goal is to build yaffs as a file system running on top of real NAND flash, but yaffs can be built to run on a RAM emulation layer for in-kernel testing without NAND flash in the system.</p>\n\n<p>Building as an application allows the yaffs_guts algorithms to be tested/debugged in a more friendly debugging environment. The test harness is in yaffsdev.c</p>\n\n<h3>Trying it out</h3>\n\n<p>YAFFS can be built to run with either mtd or RAM emulation, or both. The file system that interfaces to mtd is called <strong>yaffs</strong>, the file system that uses internal ram is called <strong>yaffsram</strong>. YAFFS simultaneously supports both if they are enabled.</p>\n\n<ol><li>\n	<p>Hack the Makefile and change the KERNELDIR define to your kernel directory.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>If you don\'t have mtd support in your kernel, then you might need to turn off USE_MTD otherwise the yaffs module might not load.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Type <strong>make clean; make</strong> to build yaffs</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Load yaffs as a module by typing <strong>/sbin/insmod yaffs.o</strong> (ya gotta be root!).</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Create a mount point eg. <strong>mkdir /mnt/y</strong></p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>To mount the RAM emulation version of yaffs, <strong>mount -t yaffsram none /mnt/y</strong></p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Alternatively, to mount the mtd version of yaffs,<strong> mount -t yaffs /dev/mtd0 /mnt/y</strong></p>\n	</li>\n</ol><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>YAFFS Data structures</h3>\n\n<p>All data types are defined in yaffs_guts.h</p>\n\n<p>Yaffs uses the following major objects:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>yaffs_Object: A yaffs_Object can be a file, directory, symlink or hardlink. The yaffs_Objects \"know\" about their corresponding yaffs_ObjectHeader in NAND and the data for that object. yaffs_Objects also bind together the directory structure as follows:</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>parent: pointer to the yaffs_Object that is a parent of this yaffs_Object in the directory structure.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>siblings: this field is used to link together a list of all the yaffs_Objects in the same directory.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>children: if the object is a directory, then children holds the head of the list of objects in the directory.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>yaffs_Tnode: yaffs_Tnodes form a tree structure that speeds up the search for data chunks in a file. As the file grows in size, the levels increase. The Tnodes are a constant size (32 bytes). Level 0 (ie the lowest level) comprise 16 2-byte entries giving an index used to search for the chunkId. Tnodes at other levels comprise 8 4-byte pointer entries to other tnodes lower in the tree.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>yaffs_Device: this holds the device context and is in some ways analogous to the VFS superblock. It stores the data used to access the mtd as well as function pointers to access the NAND data.</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>The Tnodes and Objects are allocated in groups to reduce memory allocation/freeing overheads. Freed up tnodes and objects are kept in a free list and re-used.</p>\n\n<h3>yaffs_Object</h3>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>struct yaffs_ObjectStruct</p>\n\n<p>{</p>\n\n<p>__u8 fake:1; // A fake object has no presence on NAND.</p>\n\n<p>__u8 renameAllowed:1; // Are we allowed to rename it?</p>\n\n<p>__u8 unlinkAllowed:1; // Are we allowed to unlink it?</p>\n\n<p>__u8 dirty:1; // the object needs to be written to flash</p>\n\n<p>__u8 valid:1; // When the file system is being loaded up, this</p>\n\n<p>// object might be created before the data</p>\n\n<p>// is available (ie. file data records appear before the header).</p>\n\n<p>__u8 serial; // serial number of chunk in NAND. Store here so we don\'t have to</p>\n\n<p>// read back the old one to update.</p>\n\n<p>__u16 sum; // sum of the name to speed searching</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *myDev; // The device I\'m on</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>struct list_head hashLink; // list of objects in this hash bucket</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>struct list_head hardLinks; // all the equivalent hard linked objects</p>\n\n<p>// live on this list</p>\n\n<p>// directory structure stuff</p>\n\n<p>struct yaffs_ObjectStruct *parent; //my parent directory</p>\n\n<p>struct list_head siblings; // siblings in a directory</p>\n\n<p>// also used for linking up the free list</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>// Where\'s my data in NAND?</p>\n\n<p>int chunkId; // where it lives</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>__u32 objectId; // the object id value</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_mode; // protection</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_uid; // user ID of owner</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_gid; // group ID of owner</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_atime; // time of last access</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_mtime; // time of last modification</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_ctime; // time of last change</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>yaffs_ObjectType variantType;</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>yaffs_ObjectVariant variant;</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>};</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>Obvious stuff skipped....</p>\n\n<p>fake, renameAllowed, unlinkAllowed are special flags for handling \"fake\" objects which live in the file system but do not live on NAND. Currently there are only two such objects: the root object and the lost+found directory. None of these may be renamed or unlinked.</p>\n\n<p>serial, sum: see yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n\n<p>dirty indicates that the object\'s contents has changed and a new yaffs_ObjectHeader must be written to flash.</p>\n\n<p>valid indicates that the object has been loaded up. This is only used during scanning (yaffs_Scan()) since we can know of an object\'s existance - and thus need to create the object header - before we encounter the associated yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n\n<p>hashlink is a list of Objects in the same hash bucket.</p>\n\n<p>The four variants hold extra info:</p>\n\n<p>Files hold the file size and the top level and pointer to the tnode tree for the file.</p>\n\n<p>Directories hold a list of children objects.</p>\n\n<p>Symlinks hold a pointer to the alias string. This is probably inefficient, but that probably does not matter since we don\'t expect to see many of these.</p>\n\n<p>Hardlinks hold information to identify the equivalent object.</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>File structure (tnodes)</h3>\n\n<p>File structures are done with a tiered indexing structure</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p><img alt=\"\" height=\"294\" src=\"yaffs/sv9349341.gif\" width=\"491\" /><br /><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>The file structure is maintained by a tree structure. Depending where it is in the tree, each tree node (<strong><em>tnode</em></strong>) (the blue/things) holds either:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>.... if it is at the lowest level, then 16 __u16s which identify the page.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>.... if it is at a higher level (ie an internal tnode), then 8 pointers to lowest-level tnodes.</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>When the file starts out, it is assigned only one low-level tnode. When the file expands past what a single tnode can hold, then it is assigned a second tnode and an internal node is added to point to the two tnodes. As the file grows, more low-level tnodes and high level tnodes are added.</p>\n\n<p>Traversing the tnode tree to find a particular page in a file is quite simple: each internal tnode is selected from by using 3 bits of the page offset in the file. The level 0 page resolves 4 bits.</p>\n\n<p>For example, finding page 0x235 (ie. the one starting at file position 0x46800 would proceed as follows:</p>\n\n<p>0x235 is 0000001000110101, partitioned as follows. 000.000.100.011.0101</p>\n\n<p>LevelBitsSelected value</p>\n\n<table><tr><td>\n			<p>3 or more if they exist</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>&gt;= 10</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>Zero</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>2</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>9 to 7</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>100 binary = 4</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>1</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>6 to 4</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>011 binary = 3</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>0</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>3 to 0</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>0101 binary = 5</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>Free tnodes are stored in a list. When the list is exhausted, more are allocated.</p>\n\n<p>Each tnode takes 32 bytes. Each file needs at least one level 0 tnode. How many do we need? A full 16MB file system needs at least 16MB/512/16 = 2000 level zero tnodes. More for internal tnodes. More for files smaller than optimal.</p>\n\n<p>The tree grows as required. When the file is resized to a smaller size then it is pruned.</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>NAND data</h3>\n\n<p>Data is stored on NAND in \"chunks\". Currently each chunk is the same size as a NAND flash page (ie. 512 bytes + 16 byte spare). In the future we might decide to allow for different chunk sizes. Chunks can hold either:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>A yaffs_ObjectHeader. This is the way a yaffs_Object gets stored on NAND.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>A chunk of file data.</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>The 16 byte spare area contains:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>8 bytes of tags,</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>6 bytes of ECC data</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>1 byte block status (used to identify damaged blocks)</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>1 byte data status (currently unused).</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>The tags are made up as follows:</p>\n\n<p>typedef struct</p>\n\n<p>{</p>\n\n<p>unsigned chunkId:20; //chunk number in file</p>\n\n<p>unsigned serialNumber:2; //serial number for chunk</p>\n\n<p>unsigned byteCount:10; //number of bytes of data used in this chunk</p>\n\n<p>unsigned objectId:18; //the object id that this chunk belongs to.</p>\n\n<p>unsigned ecc:12; //ECC on tags</p>\n\n<p>unsigned unusedStuff:2; //unused</p>\n\n<p>} yaffs_Tags;</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>A chunkId of zero indicates that this chunk holds a yaffs_ObjectHeader. A non zero value indicates that this is a data chunk and the position of the chunk in the file (ie. the first chunk - at offset 0 - has chunkId 1). See yaffs_guts.c:yaffs_Scan () to see how this is done.</p>\n\n<p>When a chunk is replaced (eg. file details changed or a part of a file was overwritten), the new chunk is written before the old chunk is deleted. This means that we don\'t lose data if there is a power loss after the new chunk is created but before the old one is discarded, but it does mean that we can encounter the situation where we find both the old and the new chunks in flash. The serialNumber is incremented each time the chunk is written. 2 bits is sufficient to resolve any ambiguity.</p>\n\n<p>bytecount applies only to data chunks and tells how many of the data bytes are valid.</p>\n\n<p>objectId says which object this chunk belongs to.</p>\n\n<p>ecc is used to perform error correction on the tags. Another ecc field is used to error correct the data.</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>yaffs_ObjectHeader</h3>\n\n<p>typedef struct</p>\n\n<p>{</p>\n\n<p>yaffs_ObjectType type;</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>// Apply to everything</p>\n\n<p>int parentObjectId;</p>\n\n<p>__u16 sum; // checksum of name</p>\n\n<p>char name[YAFFS_MAX_NAME_LENGTH + 1];</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>// Thes following apply to directories, files, symlinks - not hard links</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_mode; // protection</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_uid; // user ID of owner</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_gid; // group ID of owner</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_atime; // time of last access</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_mtime; // time of last modification</p>\n\n<p>__u32 st_ctime; // time of last change</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>// File size applies to files only</p>\n\n<p>int fileSize;</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>// Equivalent object id applies to hard links only.</p>\n\n<p>int equivalentObjectId;</p>\n\n<p>// alias only applies to symlinks</p>\n\n<p>char alias[YAFFS_MAX_ALIAS_LENGTH + 1];</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>} yaffs_ObjectHeader;</p>\n\n<p> </p>\n\n<p>A yaffs_ObjectHeader is stored in NAND for every yaffs_Object.</p>\n\n<p>type holds the type of yaffs_Object (file,directory,hardlink or symlink).</p>\n\n<p>parentObject is the objectId of this object\'s parent. name holds the object\'s name. Together these form the directory structure of the file system. Also worth mention is sum. This is a \"checksum\" on the name which speeds directory searching (ie. when searching the directory we only compare the name for those entries where sum matches).</p>\n\n<p>Obvious stuff skipped....</p>\n\n<p>equivalentObjectId is used by hardlinks. A hardlink to an object uses this field to specify the object that this links to. This way of doing things is a bit different than the normal Linux way of doing things (ie. keeping the links distinct from the inode) but is simpler and uses less space except for a few corner cases with hardlinks.</p>\n\n<p>alias is used by symlinks to hold the symlink alias string. This limits the size of the symlink alias. In future we should expand YAFFS to use data chunks to store aliases too long to fit into the yaffs_ObjectHeader.</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>NAND Interface</h3>\n\n<p>All NAND access is performed via four functions pointed to by yaffs_Device. At the moment a chunk is a page.</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>int WriteChunkToNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int chunkInNAND, const __u8 *data, yaffs_Spare *spare)</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>int ReadChunkFromNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int chunkInNAND, __u8 *data, yaffs_Spare *spare);</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>int EraseBlockInNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev,int blockInNAND);</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>int InitialiseNAND(struct yaffs_DeviceStruct *dev);</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p>In the Readxxx and Writexxx functions, the data and/or spare pointers may be NULL in which case these data transfers are ignored.</p>\n\n<p>A quick note about NAND:</p>\n\n<ul><li>\n	<p>NAND is not random access, but page oriented. Thus, we do all reads &amp; writes in pages.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>Each NAND page holds 512 bytes of data and 16 \"spare\" bytes. Yaffs structures the spare area with tags used to identify what is stored in the data area. There are 32 such pages to a block.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>NAND writes will only change 1 bits to 0. eg. if a byte holds 10110011 and you write 11011010 to it you will get the logical and of the two values: 10010010. The only way to get 1s again is to erase the entire block.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>You may only write to a page a few times before erasing the entire block. Yaffs lives within these limitations. Each page only gets written to twice (once when written and once when discarded).</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>ECC is normally used with NAND to correct for single bit errors. YAFFS applies the ECC itself, so the MTD should not do this.</p>\n	</li>\n	<li>\n	<p>The current mtd interfaces are not particularly well suited to YAFFS and we will address the issue with the mtd group. (The mtd interface does not support page-oriented read/write which YAFFS would prefer).</p>\n	</li>\n</ul><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h3>mkyaffs</h3>\n\n<p>mkyaffs is the tool to format a NAND mtd to be used for YAFFS. This is quite simple, just erase all the undamaged blocks. YAFFS treats erased blocks as free (empty) space.</p>\n\n<p><br />\n </p>\n\n<h2>Expected performance</h2>\n\n<p>The following numbers should give an indication of the performance we should expect from YAFFS.</p>\n\n<p>As an example, I\'ll use the following numbers. Since the hardware is capable of 50ns read/write, these numbers allow for some other ovberheads. Clearly though, the performance can be degraded in various ways.</p>\n\n<p>Seek10uS/page</p>\n\n<table><tr><td>\n			<p>Read</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>100nS/byte</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Write</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>100nS/byte</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Program</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>200uS/page</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Erase</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2mS/block</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>From this we can derive some higher-level numbers:</p>\n\n<p>OperationTimeCalculation</p>\n\n<table><tr><td>\n			<p>Read spare</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>12uS</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>seek + 16 * read</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Read page</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>63 uS</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>seek + 528 * read</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Write page</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>326 uS</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>seek + 528 * write + program + read page (for verification)</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Discard page</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>212 uS</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>seek + 16 * write + program</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Overwrite page</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>538 uS</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>write page + discard page</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Erase overhead per page</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>63uS</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>erase/32</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p><br />\n </p>\n\n<p>From this we can infer the following flash access times:</p>\n\n<p>OperationTimeCalculation</p>\n\n<table><tr><td>\n			<p>Read 1MB file</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>0.13s (about 7.5 MB/s)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2000 * read page</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Write 1MB (clean system)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>0.53s (about 1.8 MB/s)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2000 * write page</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Overwrite 1MB file (no gc)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>1.08s (about 0.9MB/s)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2000 * overwrite page</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Overwrite 1MB with 50% gc</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2.4s (about 0.4 MB/s)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2000 * overwrite page + 2000 * page copy (== overwrite page) + 4000 * erase overhead</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Delete 1MB file</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>0.43s (about 2.2 MB/s)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2000 * discard page</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr><tr><td>\n			<p>Delete 1MB file with 50% gc</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>0.49s (about 2.0MB/s)</p>\n			</td>\n			<td>\n			<p>2000 * discard page + 1000 * erase overhead</p>\n			</td>\n		</tr></table><p> </p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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length=177635\" title=\"Open file in new window\" target=\"_blank\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" data-placement=\"bottom\">yaffs.pdf</a></span><span class=\"file-size\">173.47 KB</span></span></div>\n          </div>\n  \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\"><p>Attached is a PDF with slides from the Yaffs talk at CELF\'s Embedded Linux Conference Europe 2007. If you are able to view Ogg Theora video files, the talk is also <a href=\"http://free-electrons.com/pub/video/2007/elce/elce-2007-wookey-yaffs.ogg\">online</a>. Ogg Theora is a Free video format. Free players are available for all platforms. See the list <a href=\"http://wiki.xiph.org/index.php/TheoraSoftwarePlayers\">here</a>. If in doubt, VLC is probably available for your operating system.</p>\n\n<p>If you prefer to go straight to the .pdf if clides  click <a href=\"http://www.yaffs.net/sites/yaffs.net/files/yaffs.pdf\">http://www.yaffs.net/sites/yaffs.net/files/yaffs.pdf</a></p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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System\" />\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Yaffs claims a &#039;low memory footprint&#039;, but what exactly does that mean? 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How low is low?</p>\n<p>Calculating an exact footprint is no easy task. There are many dependencies. Here is an approximation for Yaffs1 on Linux, assuming the standard block size of 512bytes per page and 16kB per block.</p>\n<ol>\n<li>Code size. This is dependent on various factors including CPU choice, optiomisation options etc. As a rough guide, the yaffs.o Linux module for x86 is around 55kBytes. This could be made smaller by stripping the debug text and ECC code if you don\'t need that. </li>\n<li>Run-time data structures. Some of these are fixed size and others are generated in runtime and change as your file structures change. As a rough guide though I will give the following:\n<ol type=\"a\">\n <li>Each yaffs partition needs a device structure of less than 1kB + approx 2-4kB stack with the current implementation. </li>\n <li>If shortOpCaches are enabled, then 524 bytes per cache entry (5 to 10 is a good number). </li>\n <li>About 120 bytes per file. (With short name caching enabled) </li>\n <li>About 4 bytes per block of NAND (ie. about 128 bytes per MB of NAND). </li>\n <li>About 4kBytes of RAM per MB of NAND for building the file TNode trees that are used to locate the data chunks. </li>\n</ol>\n </li>\n</ol>\n<p>Thus for a system using a 64MByte NAND and say 500 files you can budget on approx:</p>\n<ul>\n<li>1) 55kBytes </li>\n<li>2a) 5kB </li>\n<li>2b) 3kB (5 cache entries) </li>\n<li>2c) 60kB </li>\n<li>2d) 16kB </li>\n<li>2e) 256kB </li>\n</ul>\n<b>Total 410kBytes</b>\n<p>The last item, the tnodes, is the biggest expense in Yaffs. This can be reduced significantly by using a larger page size.</p>\n<p>There are some opportunities to tune some of these numbers so please feel free to discusss further if required.</p>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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This first-ever spaceborne all-sky transit survey will identify planets ranging from Earth-sized to gas giants, around a wide range of stellar types and orbital distances. No ground-based survey can achieve this feat.</p>\n\n<p>Some File Systems are not robust enough to be suitable for such exacting work.</p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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(Under the GPL, if you distribute your product with Yaffs, you are required to licence your product under the GPL and make available the full source code for a small charge.)</p>\n\n<p>Commercial Yaffs licences are non-exclusive, perpetual, world-wide, royalty-free and paid for with a single fee for one product. A commercial Licence entitles you to most further development and improvement of the Yaffs code.</p>\n\n<p>Contributing modifications of Yaffs code to the mainline code does not alter its Licence status.The base price for a Licence for a single Product is GB£10,000. Sterling.</p>\n\n<p>You can find further information about Licences in these documents:</p>\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"http://yaffs.net/yaffs-gpl\">Yaffs under GPL</a></li>\n	<li><a href=\"http://yaffs.net/yaffs-licence-faqs\">Yaffs licensing FAQ</a></li>\n	<li><a href=\"http://yaffs.net/licences-more-background-and-detail\">Further licensing background and detail</a></li>\n	<li><a href=\"http://yaffs.net/yaffs-licence-sample\">Sample commercial licence</a></li>\n</ul><p>If you have any questions, or would like to buy a commercial licence, please contact us either at +44 (0)1223 811679 or email  sales@aleph1.co.uk  or see our Contacts page:-  <a href=\"http://www.aleph1.co.uk/contact\">http://www.aleph1.co.uk/contact</a></p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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The response on the YAFFS mailing list is quite positive as far as leading me to believe that there are actual products shipping.\"</p>\n\n<p><br />\nCharles Manning replied:<br />\nAt a technical level, it is very difficult to make X vs Y comparisons because there are many factors involved which manifest differently on different systems therefore \'your mileage will vary\'. But, as a general rule of thumb, the following might help:</p>\n\n<p>1) YAFFS uses less run-time RAM to hold its state, so YAFFS scales better than JFFS2. There are quite a few systems using large NAND arrays (the largest partitions I know of are around the 6Gbyte mark).<br /><br />\n2) YAFFS garbage collection is simpler and faster, typically making for better performance under hard writing.<br /><br />\n3) YAFFS uses a whole page per file for headers, and does not provide compression. This means that JFFS2 is probably a better fit to small partitions. The flip side is that a lot of data (eg. MP3) does not compress very well, and enabling compression really hurts performance.<br /><br />\n4) While YAFFS has been used on NOR, it does not fit very well (because YAFFS does not use erase suspend). Thus if you\'re using smaller NAND partitions and using JFFS2 on NOR, then a JFFS2-only solution is very appealing.<br /><br />\nAll the above can generally boil down to: If you\'re using less than about 64MB the pain vs gain might play in favour of JFFS2. As you increase partition size, YAFFS makes more and more sense.</p></div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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It is widely used with Linux, RTOSs, or no OS at all, in consumer devices and critical infrastructure. 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color: \" id=\"environment-indicator\">\n  \n    </div>\n\n              <header class=\"navbar navbar-default navbar-fixed-top\" id=\"navbar\" role=\"banner\">\n              <div class=\"container\">\n            <div class=\"navbar-header\">\n          <div class=\"region region-navigation\">\n          <a class=\"logo navbar-btn pull-left\" href=\"/\" title=\"Home\" rel=\"home\">\n      <img src=\"/themes/custom/yaffs/logo.svg\" alt=\"Home\" />\n    </a>\n      \n  </div>\n\n                          <button type=\"button\" class=\"navbar-toggle\" data-toggle=\"collapse\" data-target=\"#navbar-collapse\">\n            <span class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li class=\"active\">\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\" class=\"is-active\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Contact</span>\n</h1>\n\n  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/contact\" typeof=\"schema:WebPage\" class=\"page full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"Contact\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p><img alt=\"The Old Courthouse\" class=\"image _original\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/OldCrt.jpg\" style=\"text-align: right; border-top-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; float: right; width: 400px; height: 300px;\" title=\"The Old Courthouse\" /></p>\n<dl>\n<dt><strong style=\"text-align: left;\">Telephone</strong></dt>\n<dd style=\"text-align: left;\">+44 (0)1223 811679</dd>\n<dt style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp;</dt>\n<dt style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>Email</strong> - <a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></dt>\n<dt style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>Post</strong></dt>\n<dd style=\"text-align: left;\">The Old Courthouse<br />\n123 High Street<br />\nBottisham<br />\nCambridge<br />\nCB25 9BA<br />\nUnited Kingdom.</dd>\n</dl>\n<p style=\"text-align: -webkit-auto;\">&nbsp;</p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\">Public Transport - Buses</h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">You can reach us by bus from the bus station on Drummer Street in the centre of Cambridge, in 20 minutes. Buses run two or three times an hour much of the day. Click for <a href=\"http://www.stagecoachbus.com/cambridge\" target=\"_self\" title=\"Bus Times\">timetables </a> and under Bus Timetable Lookup enter 10 or 11 in the Service No. box.<br />\nLook at the map below</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp;The Number 10 bus enters the village from the East end and passes Westwards along the High Street. Get off at the bus shelter on the South side of the High Street about 500 metres after leaving the main (A1303) road to enter the village. The Courthouse is a further 100 metres West and on the other (North) side of the road.</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The Number 10 buses leave Drummer Street at the hour and half hour and take 20 minutes.<br />\n<br />\nThe Number 11 bus leaves at 15 and 45 minutes past each hour and travels along the main A1303 road to Newmarket (and them Bury St Edmunds), passing the East end of Bottisham.&nbsp; Get off at the bus shelter on the main road, and walk back past First Copy, (the former White Swan pub) on the High Street; continue about 450 metres West along the High Street towards the centre of Bottisham. The Courthouse is on the North side of the High Street.</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>If coming to visit please make an appointment before setting out.</strong></p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a href=\"?q=node/323\">Click here for a page with only these maps, for printing out</a>.</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">This shows the location of Aleph One within Bottisham. Park in the layby on the South side of the road. We are opposite in a large building with three arched windows. There are doors on either side of the building, and you may need to try both to get a response.</p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\n<img alt=\"Bottisham map\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/Bottisham.jpg\" style=\"border: 0;\" title=\"Bottisham map\" border=\"0\" />\n</div>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>Map below shows where we are in relation to Cambridge and the surrounding roads.</p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\n<img alt=\"How to get to Aleph One\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/Cambridge.jpg\" style=\"border: 0;\" title=\"How to get to Aleph One\" border=\"0\" />\n</div>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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It is available under GNU Public License, GPL, or on commercial terms from Aleph One.\" />\n<meta name=\"keywords\" content=\"flash File System, flash, file System, flash storage, NAND flash, NOR flash, Yaffs\" />\n<meta name=\"Generator\" content=\"Drupal 8 (https://www.drupal.org)\" />\n<meta name=\"MobileOptimized\" content=\"width\" />\n<meta name=\"HandheldFriendly\" content=\"true\" />\n<meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSansRegular-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSansItalic-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSansBold-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSerifBold-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSerifBoldItalic-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSerifItalic-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSerifRegular-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https://yaffs.net/sites/default/files/fontyourface/fontsquirrel/LiberationSansBoldItalic-fontfacekit/fontyourface-stylesheet.css\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"shortcut icon\" href=\"/sites/default/files/yaffs_favicon.png\" type=\"image/png\" />\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"/contact\" />\n<link rel=\"shortlink\" href=\"/node/73\" />\n<link rel=\"revision\" href=\"/contact\" />\n\n    <title>Contact | Yaffs - A Flash File System for embedded use</title>\n    <link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"/sites/default/files/css/css_YGKHk3qOgVcGqV_6s_kZUGJkGYQEouHb462Ja18qfRA.css?ozekku\" media=\"all\" />\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"/sites/default/files/css/css_6qeLA6GBkZNPHWp9GdQIYovV3tYuKU-ts-HicZ-WeQQ.css?ozekku\" media=\"all\" />\n\n    \n<!--[if lte IE 8]>\n<script src=\"/sites/default/files/js/js_VtafjXmRvoUgAzqzYTA3Wrjkx9wcWhjP0G4ZnnqRamA.js\"></script>\n<![endif]-->\n\n  </head>\n  <body class=\"fontyourface path-node page-node-type-page navbar-is-fixed-top has-glyphicons\">\n    <a href=\"#main-content\" class=\"visually-hidden focusable skip-link\">\n      Skip to main content\n    </a>\n    <div style=\"background-color: ; color: \" id=\"environment-indicator\">\n  \n    </div>\n\n              <header class=\"navbar navbar-default navbar-fixed-top\" id=\"navbar\" role=\"banner\">\n              <div class=\"container\">\n            <div class=\"navbar-header\">\n          <div class=\"region region-navigation\">\n          <a class=\"logo navbar-btn pull-left\" href=\"/\" title=\"Home\" rel=\"home\">\n      <img src=\"/themes/custom/yaffs/logo.svg\" alt=\"Home\" />\n    </a>\n      \n  </div>\n\n                          <button type=\"button\" class=\"navbar-toggle\" data-toggle=\"collapse\" data-target=\"#navbar-collapse\">\n            <span class=\"sr-only\">Toggle navigation</span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n            <span class=\"icon-bar\"></span>\n          </button>\n              </div>\n\n                    <div id=\"navbar-collapse\" class=\"navbar-collapse collapse\">\n            <div class=\"region region-navigation-collapsible\">\n    <nav role=\"navigation\" aria-labelledby=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\" id=\"block-mainnavigation\">\n            <h2 class=\"sr-only\" id=\"block-mainnavigation-menu\">Main navigation</h2>\n\n      \n              <ul class=\"menu nav navbar-nav\">\n                            <li>\n        <a href=\"/\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"&lt;front&gt;\">Home</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/support\" title=\"Help for Yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/380\">Support</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/documents\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"documents\">Documents</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/get-yaffs\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/382\">Download</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li>\n        <a href=\"/about-us\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/325\">About us</a>\n                  </li>\n                        <li class=\"active\">\n        <a href=\"/contact\" data-drupal-link-system-path=\"node/73\">Contact</a>\n                  </li>\n        </ul>\n  \n\n\n  </nav>\n<div class=\"search-block-form block block-search block-search-form-block\" data-drupal-selector=\"search-block-form\" id=\"block-searchform\" role=\"search\">\n  \n    \n      <form action=\"/search/node\" method=\"get\" id=\"search-block-form\" accept-charset=\"UTF-8\">\n  <div class=\"form-item js-form-item form-type-search js-form-type-search form-item-keys js-form-item-keys form-no-label form-group\">\n      <label for=\"edit-keys\" class=\"control-label sr-only\">Search</label>\n  \n  \n  <div class=\"input-group\"><input title=\"Enter the terms you wish to search for.\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-keys\" class=\"form-search form-control\" placeholder=\"Search\" type=\"search\" id=\"edit-keys\" name=\"keys\" value=\"\" size=\"15\" maxlength=\"128\" data-toggle=\"tooltip\" /><span class=\"input-group-btn\"><button type=\"submit\" value=\"Search\" class=\"button js-form-submit form-submit btn-primary btn icon-only\" name=\"\"><span class=\"sr-only\">Search</span><span class=\"icon glyphicon glyphicon-search\" aria-hidden=\"true\"></span></button></span></div>\n\n  \n  \n  </div>\n<div class=\"form-actions form-group js-form-wrapper form-wrapper\" data-drupal-selector=\"edit-actions\" id=\"edit-actions\"></div>\n\n</form>\n\n  </div>\n\n  </div>\n\n        </div>\n                    </div>\n          </header>\n  \n  <div role=\"main\" class=\"main-container container js-quickedit-main-content\">\n    <div class=\"row\">\n\n            \n            \n                  <section class=\"col-sm-12\">\n\n                                      <div class=\"highlighted\">  <div class=\"region region-highlighted\">\n      \n\n\n  </div>\n</div>\n                  \n                \n                \n                                      \n                  \n                          <a id=\"main-content\"></a>\n            <div class=\"region region-content\">\n        <h1 class=\"page-header\"><span property=\"schema:name\">Contact</span>\n</h1>\n\n  <article role=\"article\" about=\"/contact\" typeof=\"schema:WebPage\" class=\"page full clearfix\">\n\n  \n      <span property=\"schema:name\" content=\"Contact\" class=\"hidden\"></span>\n\n\n  \n  <div class=\"content\">\n    \n            <div property=\"schema:text\" class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p><img alt=\"The Old Courthouse\" class=\"image _original\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/OldCrt.jpg\" style=\"text-align: right; border-top-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; float: right; width: 400px; height: 300px;\" title=\"The Old Courthouse\" /></p>\n<dl>\n<dt><strong style=\"text-align: left;\">Telephone</strong></dt>\n<dd style=\"text-align: left;\">+44 (0)1223 811679</dd>\n<dt style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp;</dt>\n<dt style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>Email</strong> - <a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></dt>\n<dt style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>Post</strong></dt>\n<dd style=\"text-align: left;\">The Old Courthouse<br />\n123 High Street<br />\nBottisham<br />\nCambridge<br />\nCB25 9BA<br />\nUnited Kingdom.</dd>\n</dl>\n<p style=\"text-align: -webkit-auto;\">&nbsp;</p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left;\">Public Transport - Buses</h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">You can reach us by bus from the bus station on Drummer Street in the centre of Cambridge, in 20 minutes. Buses run two or three times an hour much of the day. Click for <a href=\"http://www.stagecoachbus.com/cambridge\" target=\"_self\" title=\"Bus Times\">timetables </a> and under Bus Timetable Lookup enter 10 or 11 in the Service No. box.<br />\nLook at the map below</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">&nbsp;The Number 10 bus enters the village from the East end and passes Westwards along the High Street. Get off at the bus shelter on the South side of the High Street about 500 metres after leaving the main (A1303) road to enter the village. The Courthouse is a further 100 metres West and on the other (North) side of the road.</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">The Number 10 buses leave Drummer Street at the hour and half hour and take 20 minutes.<br />\n<br />\nThe Number 11 bus leaves at 15 and 45 minutes past each hour and travels along the main A1303 road to Newmarket (and them Bury St Edmunds), passing the East end of Bottisham.&nbsp; Get off at the bus shelter on the main road, and walk back past First Copy, (the former White Swan pub) on the High Street; continue about 450 metres West along the High Street towards the centre of Bottisham. The Courthouse is on the North side of the High Street.</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><strong>If coming to visit please make an appointment before setting out.</strong></p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\"><a href=\"?q=node/323\">Click here for a page with only these maps, for printing out</a>.</p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">This shows the location of Aleph One within Bottisham. Park in the layby on the South side of the road. We are opposite in a large building with three arched windows. There are doors on either side of the building, and you may need to try both to get a response.</p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\n<img alt=\"Bottisham map\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/Bottisham.jpg\" style=\"border: 0;\" title=\"Bottisham map\" border=\"0\" />\n</div>\n<p>&nbsp;</p>\n<p>Map below shows where we are in relation to Cambridge and the surrounding roads.</p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">\n<img alt=\"How to get to Aleph One\" src=\"/sites/yaffs.net/files/images/Cambridge.jpg\" style=\"border: 0;\" title=\"How to get to Aleph One\" border=\"0\" />\n</div>\n</div>\n      \n  </div>\n\n</article>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n              </section>\n\n                </div>\n  </div>\n\n      <footer class=\"footer container\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n        <div class=\"primary_footer row\">\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col1\">\n    <section id=\"block-yaffs-block-6\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content6c2d4b45-4dba-4b2d-8b9f-76701bf27533 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<ul class=\"fa-ul\">\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-phone\"></i>+44 (0)1223 811679</li>\n<li><i class=\"fa-li fa fa-envelope\"></i><a href=\"denied:mailto:info@aleph1.co.uk?Subject=Website contact\" target=\"_top\">info@aleph1.co.uk</a></li>\n</ul>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n\n  </div>\n\n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                \n            </div>\n            <div class=\"col-sm-3\">\n                  <div class=\"region region-footer-col4\">\n    <section id=\"block-footerlegal\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content78ab593d-35b6-4772-a141-30216e7fcbb2 clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-right\">&nbsp;<a href=\"/legal\">Legal &amp; Cookies</a></p>\n</div>\n      \n  </section>\n\n<section id=\"block-cookieinfo\" class=\"block block-block-content block-block-content4848c58d-90df-4819-81d8-0f9568eeeaac clearfix\">\n  \n    \n\n      \n            <div class=\"field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-hidden field--item\">\n<p class=\"text-align-justify\"><br />\nWe use <a href=\"/legal\">cookies on this site</a>. 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